tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-26479840867967859192024-03-17T21:03:11.902-06:00Bio Geo Nerd"I have no special talents. I am only passionately curious." -Albert EinsteinJulie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.comBlogger166125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-49190481633127681902015-08-02T12:27:00.000-06:002015-08-02T12:27:09.293-06:00ElementsThis is super cool! Characterizations of the first 12 elements of the Periodic Table of Elements.<br />
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<a href="http://kcd-elements.tumblr.com/">http://kcd-elements.tumblr.com/</a><br />
<br />Juliehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11053993488327960337noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-27256033022103914862015-07-14T16:49:00.000-06:002016-05-24T18:47:11.644-06:00Pluto<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">New Horizons came closest to Pluto today, releasing some amazing images! So sad Pluto was demoted from planet status before we got there, but this is still really exciting, and more pictures will be out tomorrow.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/Pluto%20Love.%20%20http://biogeonerd.blogspot.com/2015/07/pluto.html" target="_blank">Click here </a>to read more on NASA's website.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">I couldn't resist making this meme, since so far it looks like no one else has (which surprised me). What else do you do when you have a planet with what looks like a giant heart on it? hah </span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9dy_7PRa0_6cqombEWSGiznSxVh5_2I64y3nn6zQLCVpgRPd__CZTmj-Up9R7IjSVsc-Gt4exJBYb3TDI182_F4siXqrgEQEXzlwpQzQ1frK15iMwYH_CDehseESk-SqT0HknCVOqurVB/s1600/Pluto+love+you+to+pluto+and+back.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9dy_7PRa0_6cqombEWSGiznSxVh5_2I64y3nn6zQLCVpgRPd__CZTmj-Up9R7IjSVsc-Gt4exJBYb3TDI182_F4siXqrgEQEXzlwpQzQ1frK15iMwYH_CDehseESk-SqT0HknCVOqurVB/s320/Pluto+love+you+to+pluto+and+back.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">I love you to Pluto and back</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Stay curious!</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">~Bio Geo Nerd </span>Juliehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11053993488327960337noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-3687564773284538432015-05-17T13:26:00.000-06:002015-05-17T13:26:29.421-06:00Marie Tharp - Geologist<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzha3-q64z2W7KvmSJh76E0jn9mEgg8nwu0p_mu_3r6bxhoSLhdGCp7UKjKHdfwfT1kGLlpGrRKL_xyHimeG963ZvNWhxukJHn26vLWJ_F32joN69CI4wl9hgD7S6T-dr2n5j2XwV11NpY/s1600/marie+tharp+cartographer.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="248" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzha3-q64z2W7KvmSJh76E0jn9mEgg8nwu0p_mu_3r6bxhoSLhdGCp7UKjKHdfwfT1kGLlpGrRKL_xyHimeG963ZvNWhxukJHn26vLWJ_F32joN69CI4wl9hgD7S6T-dr2n5j2XwV11NpY/s320/marie+tharp+cartographer.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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Marie Tharp was responsible for verifying Alfred Wegener's theory of Continental Drift, a key Theory in Geology. Read all about her in this amazing <a href="http://mentalfloss.com/article/60481/how-one-womans-discovery-shook-foundations-geology" target="_blank">article on mentalfloss</a><a href="http://mentalfloss.com/article/60481/how-one-womans-discovery-shook-foundations-geology" target="_blank"> "How One Woman's Discovery Shook the Foundations of Geology"</a>.<br />
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Wegener's was a theory the scientific community only laughed at when presented in 1912 until all the evidence came pouring in and staring them in the face many years after Wegener's death. The theory was laughed at, and according to Marie Tharp's recollection, you could even be fired from geologic work for believing his theory.<br />
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As an aside, here's a fun video on Wegener<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/T1-cES1Ekto" width="420"></iframe><br />
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Even when Marie Tharp first showed the evidence - a map she had made from radar data of the sea floor which clearly showed the mid-ocean ridge where sea floor spreading takes place and allows for continental drift - to her colleague in the 1950's, he made her redo all her hard work mapping the seafloor because he couldn't believe it backed up Wegener's Theory and pegged it as only "girl talk". She started from scratch and came up with the same thing, which also was corroborated by this colleague's own data of undersea earthquakes.<br />
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This laid the way for Harry Hess to peg Seafloor Spreading as the mechanism for Continental Drift. Wegener and Hess are recognized as the fathers of Plate Tectonics in modern Geology.<br />
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I'm going to go out on a limb and consider Tharp as a mother of Plate Tectonics! The only reason she wasn't out on research ships collecting radar data herself for this work was because they wouldn't allow women on ships- it was considered bad luck. In fact the only way she even got to study geology was because after Pearl Harbor, universities finally opened up their programs to women. Marie Tharp is not well known, but she managed to triumph over the sexism of the time and is now one of my heroes.<br />
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<u>References</u><br />
This post was spurred by this amazing article, which goes into detail about what Marie Tharp did. Do yourself a favor and read it! (Picture also from there)<br />
<a href="http://mentalfloss.com/article/60481/how-one-womans-discovery-shook-foundations-geology">http://mentalfloss.com/article/60481/how-one-womans-discovery-shook-foundations-geology</a><br />
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Wegener">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Wegener</a><br />
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<br />Juliehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11053993488327960337noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-47816953129585671032015-03-04T17:35:00.000-07:002015-03-04T17:56:31.180-07:00The Teen Brain<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Can I just tell you how much I love teenagers? I am student teaching at a high school and I thoroughly enjoy being around these young people, with their varied personalities, interests, challenges, goals, etc.. I obviously adore science, but these kids make my job so great I'd probably still like it even if I didn't get to teach about my favorite thing ever. I just wish they all knew how awesome they are and can be.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Adolescence is a really interesting conundrum in the development of a human being. It's an exciting time that leads up to so many big life changes- getting through school, choosing a career, starting a family, making a place for oneself in the world. So many physical changes are happening, not the least of which are the changes in the brain. These changes make it both easier and more difficult for people to become responsible adults, which is one reason it is so incredibly fascinating, and makes me truly appreciate and empathize with teenagers that much more.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><u>An explosion of brain development</u></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">It is well-known that humans go through an explosion of brain development during the first 3 years of life. Infants and toddlers are actively exploring their worlds and making many connections in their brains. But did you know this explosion also happens in adolescence? And interestingly, an important part of this development is cutting away parts that are no longer needed. This process is called "synaptic pruning". </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><u>Synaptic Pruning</u></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This term refers to the "synapses" which are the connections between brain cells. Cutting those away may seem counter-intuitive, but it is actually a wonderful part of developing a faster, more efficient brain. It's a very exciting time for learning.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Here are some photographs taken through a microscope of brain cells
at various ages. Notice how there is an explosion of growth as the baby develops, and then as they become school-aged, things are pruned away while what's left becomes strengthened.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHCXy7intyAf2VRqxIWAlhBUT8yRUhbJRTfKbGFZ0aOHsFj4mAfWgEzBHuKhpEOorg6enU5subU2LFUJPVQIreJHBKo64Fi7L2Ts3PlEKHhrQRapA6B-UzLgDjaEJuliQ5NV8wdAOdS1oF/s1600/SynapticPruning.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHCXy7intyAf2VRqxIWAlhBUT8yRUhbJRTfKbGFZ0aOHsFj4mAfWgEzBHuKhpEOorg6enU5subU2LFUJPVQIreJHBKo64Fi7L2Ts3PlEKHhrQRapA6B-UzLgDjaEJuliQ5NV8wdAOdS1oF/s1600/SynapticPruning.jpg" height="251" width="640" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">I have put in a couple of great video clips to explain this process. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Short, student-friendly explanation:</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">More detailed (fascinating!) info on synaptic pruning - TED talk by Sarah-Jayne Blakemore:</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" mozallowfullscreen="" scrolling="no" src="https://embed-ssl.ted.com/talks/sarah_jayne_blakemore_the_mysterious_workings_of_the_adolescent_brain.html" webkitallowfullscreen="" width="640"></iframe><br /></span>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><u>Prefrontal Cortex Development</u></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">If you watched that second video above, you heard a lot about how the adolescent prefrontal cortex is developing. This area of the brain is very important for higher-order or "executive" functioning skills. That includes things like planning, predicting consequences, impulse control, and personality.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDPWRgwezh7Aw_E843lll08VD-EIxsZZXOtcr7o-FXJ0FyQx4FYECdIzzBkgTIJ0Jquj_A1RWVRbLylFxMZq7MoLiqO55Q575De3Ij_iInsKQN3rCuewKEm-EPYuaFsk2fZK52xsRG_akZ/s1600/pref-cortex.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDPWRgwezh7Aw_E843lll08VD-EIxsZZXOtcr7o-FXJ0FyQx4FYECdIzzBkgTIJ0Jquj_A1RWVRbLylFxMZq7MoLiqO55Q575De3Ij_iInsKQN3rCuewKEm-EPYuaFsk2fZK52xsRG_akZ/s1600/pref-cortex.gif" height="332" width="400" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">So the interesting thing is.... this area of the brain is not fully developed in humans until around age 25! Does the sometimes irrational behavior of teenagers make more sense given that information? Teens are very prone to risk-taking, which makes sense given the fact that they are still learning how to control impulses, predict consequences, and make good decisions. This lower impulse control can also be an amazingly good thing! So many people have made amazing discoveries, inventions, etc. while in this stage of brain development, because they had all the drive to go for their goal, without their brains putting the brakes on. So while impulse control is super important, sometimes it can be overdone and stifle creativity. Without that fully in place, teens can do some amazing things - amazingly stupid or amazingly creative and exceptional!</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><u>Societal influences</u></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">So the conundrum I mentioned is that a teenager has this amazing brain with abilities and creativity, but heightened propensity toward risk taking and foolishness and less ability to control those impulses. And yet this is a time period when people are expected to make really important decisions that will shape the rest of their lives.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">It is also a time when many young people are filling those moldable brains of theirs with garbage! Not just garbage that will prove pretty useless in the future, like Angry Birds and Candy Crush. But garbage that is going to forever stunt their progress and could even ruin their lives. Alcohol, pornography, and drugs can wreak havoc on a developing brain and the person whose head it's in. But those are the things that are exciting and new, and the teen hasn't yet developed full ability to put the brakes on.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">That, however is NOT an excuse. It is important for teenagers to realize the limitations of being a teenager and rely on advice of parents, guardians, teachers, and other trusted adults to help keep them safe. It makes perfect sense that we strive to educate young people about staying away from risky things like drugs before they even get to be teenagers. If a young person can decide while they are a child that they will say no to drugs, no questions asked...that choice has already been made and they won't have to grapple as hard with it later on. They will also be helped by the added protection of choosing good friends who have also made similar choices for themselves.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">So to wrap this up.... teenagers are awesome creatures. They have a LOT of brain work to do, while working with a less developed instrument than those of adults. They need good adults who will support and guide them. Do what you can to help educate them, but above all, love them and cut them a little slack.</span>Juliehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11053993488327960337noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-61347112502550538062015-01-01T13:34:00.001-07:002015-05-17T13:56:57.369-06:00Your Metabolism Doesn't Know It's The New YearThis is a more scientific, detailed continuation of a discussion started on my other blog. <a href="http://fatfunfit.blogspot.com/2015/01/why-im-not-making-resolutions-case.html" target="_blank">Fat Fun Fit: Why I'm Not Making Resolutions: A Case Against Dieting</a>. From that post (in blue):<br />
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<span style="color: #3d85c6;"><b>How will your body react if your norm is to eat around 2,500 calories
per day, and only a little walking as your physical activity, and you
suddenly cut your food intake by HALF and jump up to a "perfect" workout
regimen? My body reacted like this, as would most: "Holy crud!! What
the hell is going on?!! We must be starving, and running to try to
find food! What apocalypse is going on out there? Oh man, this is it,
this is the end. Emergency! Emergency! Going to code red- crisis
management mode!" My body senses a sudden catastrophic world event on
many January 1st's.</b></span></div>
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<span style="color: #3d85c6;"><b>Now time for the science nerd in
me to come out. What happens physiologically while on a low-calorie
diet that your body is not used to, is that all food coming in as much
as possible will be stored as fat for later in case the emergency gets
even worse, and muscle gets broken down to be used for quick energy.
Cause if you're in a crisis, keeping your brain well-fed, and planning
for the worst is top priority. Your brain is not able to use energy
from fat, and if you are starving your brain by eating a severely
low-calorie diet, muscle is the quickest way to get energy to your
brain. Your body doesn't really have a way to tell how much fat it
already has stored so that it can "cap" it at a certain amount, which is
why you can get very morbidly obese people. Your body will just keep
making more fat when it is in these crises even though you already have a
lot, or when there is a plain old excess of energy coming in. Losing that muscle lowers my energy and makes sustaining this plan much more difficult.</b></span></div>
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Continuing on....<br />
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Your brain needs glucose. Your body does too. It's the
energy that gets broken down into usable energy for your body, known as
ATP. You can also use other simple sugars like fructose, but those
actually just get converted to glucose before being used to make energy.<br />
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Glucose can be stored in a number of ways. The easiest way is as
glycogen. That is a ginormous molecule of glucoses linked together in a
network. Your liver and muscles store glycogen so that your body and
brain have enough energy between meals. They can only store enough to
last for a few hours (between meals). When there is no glucose in your
blood from a recent meal and there is a need for energy, the glycogen
gets broken down to glucose.<br />
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In the muscle glycogen, the glucose is
used right there in the muscles so you can still walk around, type at
your computer, chase your kids, etc. between meals. The liver is the
bank account for your brain. The glycogen in the liver is broken down
to send glucose into the blood for the brain to use. Brain always has
priority. If the brain doesn't get enough, the body must supply.<br />
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When
glycogen is gone, the body will go to the next source. Muscle. There
are a lot of Amino Acids - building blocks of proteins - in your
muscles, cause that's what muscles are made of- loads and loads of proteins. Those proteins can then be made back into glucose to send to the brain so it has energy. This process is called gluconeogenesis (gluco=glucose, neo= new, genesis= make; make new glucose).<br />
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When you are on a very low-calorie diet or starvation, your body will break down some muscle to feed your brain. In the absence of readily useable glucose in the diet, the same happens. This is why people on Atkins/ low carb diets lose a lot of weight quickly at the beginning. They are starving their brains of glucose, so the muscle gets broken down. Well, muscle weighs A LOT. It is much more dense and heavy than fat. It also takes a lot more water to metabolize muscle, so the majority of those pounds you are dropping on those diets are muscle and water. Great if all you care about is the number on the scale. Terrible if you care about your body composition, shape/ size, and actual health.<br />
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The other way for glucose to be stored is for PARTS of it to be put into fat. Glucose has 6 Carbons in it, but a bunch of 2-carbon subunits (Acetyl-CoA) can be put together into a long chain: a fatty acid. Then 3 of these chains can be attached to a glycerol and stuck in adipocytes- fat cells. A lot of energy can be tucked away this way. You get loads and loads of energy out of fat. You are probably familiar with this if you pay attention to nutrition labels. There are 9 Calories per gram of fat, but only 4 Calories per gram of carbohydrate or protein. That's equalizing the weight. Fat takes up a lot more space, so all that extra energy stored in your body also makes your body bigger than the same amount of energy stored in muscles or glycogen.<br />
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So, how and when does this fat energy get used? That's the tricky thing. Your brain lacks the proper gateways and enzymes to metabolize the subunits from fatty acids (acetyl CoA) directly. It can only take in glucose or ketone bodies. The glycerol from the triglyceride can be made into glucose, so those get sent off to the liver to do that. But the fatty acids are better used by the cells of the body cause they have the right enzymes and gates to allow that to happen.<br />
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But since fat is long-term storage, just like a trust fund, the body is not going to break into it at the first sign of trouble. It waits to see if it can get by with the cash on hand, the checking and savings account. (Glucose in blood from your meal, then glycogen, then muscle as explained already.) Then if it's dire enough it will go for those fatty acids IF the body is in need of it. So, from what I have heard from a Physiology professor about some research (but haven't located the research myself yet so I have no link, sorry), is that the mark for the fat getting mobilized is about 45 minutes of exercise. After that point you would start to break down the fat for your body to use. So the recommendation of 30 minutes of exercise most days doesn't even touch that. If I want to reduce body fat, the best thing is to go on hours-long hikes as much as possible. (The regular aerobic exercise IS crucial to your health in other ways though, and should still be maintained for your cardiovascular, respiratory, muscle and mental health. Benefits of regular exercise are nearly endless.)<br />
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I mentioned the brain can use ketone bodies. In severe starvation, the fatty acids can be made into ketone bodies, which can get into the brain and used for energy. But they are very dangerous because they turn the blood acidic and it is detrimental to your body. This is the last ditch effort during severe starvation, to keep your brain alive, cause without your brain, the show is over.Juliehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11053993488327960337noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-89602892111278384302014-10-30T08:49:00.000-06:002014-10-30T21:21:38.665-06:00Memory & Amnesia(This post has resources and information for learning about Memory and Amnesia, for Physiological Psychology.)<br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Radio Lab:</span><br />
<iframe frameborder="0" height="54" scrolling="no" src="//www.radiolab.org/widgets/ondemand_player/#file=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radiolab.org%2Faudio%2Fxspf%2F91569%2F;containerClass=radiolab" width="474"></iframe>
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">6:30 Rat tests, 8:08 Chemical prevent memory in rats; Clive Waring 42:30</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">The Hippocampus and Patient H.M.(by Ted Ed)</span><br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/KkaXNvzE4pk" width="560"></iframe>
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H.M. - Nova special<br />
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<iframe width="560" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/UqVUVREIXKg" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe>
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9:22 What like for H.M. 10:40-11:52 Muscle memory star test<br />
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Morris Water Maze<br />
<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/kWfNoD_sLww" width="420"></iframe>
Juliehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11053993488327960337noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-40367930101057429192014-10-24T22:12:00.001-06:002015-05-17T14:11:11.794-06:00Periodic Table of CookiesIn honor of chemistry week,<br />
Here's the Periodic Table of Cookies my club (Science Association of Women at UVU) did this spring to make money. Making that many cookies was insane. But fun. :)<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZwqjfCruKE3AbsRezca2KypFjdPPYshiMsqgiYE3p1_66eptMWF24LNKO4STHw5pa6FSJRwjHm8-3aCmkudrAAEfF-pGo8AT34B61WlQW6_PZQBl6D4e5KbwRjgUX8kVqueJhXxaB5mbp/s1600/DSCN5028.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZwqjfCruKE3AbsRezca2KypFjdPPYshiMsqgiYE3p1_66eptMWF24LNKO4STHw5pa6FSJRwjHm8-3aCmkudrAAEfF-pGo8AT34B61WlQW6_PZQBl6D4e5KbwRjgUX8kVqueJhXxaB5mbp/s1600/DSCN5028.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Printed on sugar overlay, we cut each square out</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<br />Juliehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11053993488327960337noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-10938556032666143062014-10-21T11:10:00.004-06:002014-10-21T11:10:26.738-06:00Footprints and trackwaysHow do paleontologists and anthropologists use footprints and trackways? Often, information is extrapolated from tracks and used to determine approximate heights and sizes of the organism that left the tracks. How can this be? Is there a correlation between foot size, leg length, stride length...and HEIGHT? Let's find out!<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinchv2iEaLB6D_mgS1Zw1sy7dNMzNTBsqup-rn8w8-bu6M-7h3fWnc-ktzegVTSVw2YTBEzfN1nR2UALeuYbNbt8JQJ8M2eYEs9Se77prbkkdGeIwM4OGQfbWVr3Fz4ZCRBBRl-Tr9GSE/s1600/photo+1(1).JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinchv2iEaLB6D_mgS1Zw1sy7dNMzNTBsqup-rn8w8-bu6M-7h3fWnc-ktzegVTSVw2YTBEzfN1nR2UALeuYbNbt8JQJ8M2eYEs9Se77prbkkdGeIwM4OGQfbWVr3Fz4ZCRBBRl-Tr9GSE/s1600/photo+1(1).JPG" height="197" width="320" /></a></div>
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These formulae don't only work for dinosaurs. If you like Lego, you
may like to know that using Alexander and Thulborn's formulae, a Lego
minifig (the little people) could walk at 0.5 km/h and run at 2.2 km/h<br />
<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="width: 28%px;"><tbody>
<tr>
<td class="ImageTable"><span><img alt="Lego minifigs running and walking" height="256" src="http://www.csiro.au/helix/sciencemail/activities/images/DinoLego3.jpg" width="341" /></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="ImageTable"><span>Using the same equations that estimate dinosaurs' speeds, Lego figures could run at 2 km/h and walk at 0.5 </span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
(Lego info from http://www.csiro.au/helix/sciencemail/activities/dinospeed.html)<br />
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<a href="http://www.csiro.au/helix/sciencemail/activities/images/DinoAlexander1.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Speed (in metres per second)=0.25 x (square root of g) x [stride length]^1.67 x [hip height]^-1.17" border="0" height="74" src="http://www.csiro.au/helix/sciencemail/activities/images/DinoAlexander1.gif" width="350" /></a><br />
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<span></span><br />
<span>Where g is the acceleration from gravity. On
Earth, g=9.8 m/s². Don't worry if you haven't come across maths like
this before. What's important is that it's a way of estimating an
animal's speed, without measuring it directly.</span><br />
<div align="left">
<span>We can check Alexander's formula
by comparing it to our measurements. The stride length is just the
distance (100m) divided by the number of strides (half the number of
steps). In terms of your measurements, Alexander's formula becomes:</span></div>
<div align="left">
<span><img alt="Speed (in metres per second)=7.8 x ( 200/[number of steps] )^1.67 x [hip height]^-1.17" height="63" src="http://www.csiro.au/helix/sciencemail/activities/images/DinoAlexander2.gif" width="350" /></span></div>
Your actual speed is just the distance divided by the time it took:<br />
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<img alt="Speed=100/time" height="50" src="http://www.csiro.au/helix/sciencemail/activities/images/DinoSpeed.gif" width="121" /><br />
<span id="goog_2001342435"></span><span id="goog_2001342436"></span><br />
<span id="goog_2001342435"></span><span id="goog_2001342436"></span><br />
<span id="goog_2001342435"></span><span id="goog_2001342436"></span><br />
The basic measurement of a dinosaur footprint is its length, represented
as FL. The ratio of footprint length and hip height (h) is different
for different groups of dinosaurs, but generally the hip height
of a bipedal dinosaur is roughly four times the footprint length.
The speed can then be determined as relative speed, which is stride
length (SL), divided by hip height (h). Generally speaking, if the
SL/h <2.0, then the animal was walking; >2.9, the animal was running;
and between 2.0 and 2.9, the animal was trotting.1 (Source: <a href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/dynamic/session3/sess3_act2.htm">http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/dynamic/session3/sess3_act2.htm</a>)<br />
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<h4>
What can a single track tell us? </h4>
Not too much. We can infer something about the size of the animal
and maybe something about the sediment. We may have a clue as to
who made the track.<br />
<h4>
What can a trackway (a series of tracks or footprints) tell you?</h4>
<ul>
<li>
Who was there.<br />
</li>
<li>
How many animals were there.<br />
</li>
<li>
The sizes of the animals compared to one another.<br />
</li>
<li>
How they were interacting - social activity, such as herds,
moving in families, etc.<br />
</li>
<li>
How fast they were moving.<br />
</li>
<li>
What the sediment was like, and therefore something about the
environment of the time.<br />
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Source of above text: <a href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/dynamic/session3/sess3_stories3.htm" target="_blank">http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/education/dynamic/session3/sess3_stories3.htm </a><br />
</li>
</ul>
Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-32523140567697626972014-10-02T23:56:00.004-06:002014-10-03T00:04:38.062-06:00Leaf Anatomy<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-size: large;">Meristems</span> <br />
View of a <b>shoot apical meristem</b> with some <b>leaf primordia</b>. Additionally, I have labelled the 3 <b>primary meristems</b> you can differentiate here.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1N0psYBXmbJdtpcYnPkkDpDOMYI2pQGFaNfcbNxgaUYDmFf1vtJrmti_svRbG7dYLF2aoq_EUqE-5D38vpxcjNsbohxvsdnYjyQkkNgxjB0Nzh2wtIKc-QAStrB_UjEuygys5QuOAJThi/s1600/primary+meristems+labeled+pic.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1N0psYBXmbJdtpcYnPkkDpDOMYI2pQGFaNfcbNxgaUYDmFf1vtJrmti_svRbG7dYLF2aoq_EUqE-5D38vpxcjNsbohxvsdnYjyQkkNgxjB0Nzh2wtIKc-QAStrB_UjEuygys5QuOAJThi/s1600/primary+meristems+labeled+pic.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
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Here's a nicotine leaf to show the two kinds of meristems specific to the leaf. The <b>leaf apical meristem</b> becomes the midrib of the leaf, while the <b>leaf marginal meristem</b> is the blade of the leaf.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEBHMiEbbDaRNkeFYCAEomfXWeIIFKWTWKgUcBbeNQb3TQp3LhDYZ33TiFOBrq7HUaMrAaN7GHjXHxS0-47NPkihOakxgF0asTXTkM7El_pKJ8o-JpZsxw5OeLEMpdKtF67-KtnZYcLHZD/s1600/leaf+apical+marginal+meristem.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEBHMiEbbDaRNkeFYCAEomfXWeIIFKWTWKgUcBbeNQb3TQp3LhDYZ33TiFOBrq7HUaMrAaN7GHjXHxS0-47NPkihOakxgF0asTXTkM7El_pKJ8o-JpZsxw5OeLEMpdKtF67-KtnZYcLHZD/s1600/leaf+apical+marginal+meristem.jpg" height="400" width="362" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Epidermis</span><br />
From a <i>Sedum</i> (stone crop)- you can see the "regular" epidermal cells (squiggly shaped) as well as the <b>guard cells</b> in various places surrounding stomata.<br />
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Take a closer look:<br />
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Also here is a <b>sunken stomate</b> as seen in a <i>Pinus</i> leaf. It is "sunken" because the guard cells are below the level of the epidermis which helps protect against dessication (drying out).<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Mesophyll</span><br />
<b>Mesophyll</b> just means middle of the leaf. It is the term for the ground tissue in the leaf. There are two types by shape: <b>palisade </b>and <b>spongy</b>.<br />
You can see both of these well in a pine leaf: <br />
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We also term a leaf to be <b>unifacial</b> or <b>bifacial</b> based on the arrangement of the mesophyll. Bifacial is if there is spongy on one side, and palisade on the other. Unifacial is either the same type throughout, or it makes a kind of sandwich with the same kinds on either side and something different in the middle. You can see this type of unifacial in a <i>Dianthus </i>(carnation) leaf:<br />
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(The red rod-shaped parts are palisade, the lighter stained area in the middle with a lot of spaces is spongy.)<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Pine anatomy</span><br />
Some things we learned specifically with pine needles (I'm not sure if they also apply to some other plants, sorry) are the <b>resin duct</b> with <b>epithelium</b>, <b>hypodermal sclerenchyma</b>, and <b>transfusion tissue</b>.<br />
Some of these are labeled:<br />
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The outermost layer surrounding the resin duct is the epithelium. <b>Hypodermal sclerenchyma</b> is below ("hypo") the outermost layer of cells or dermis. These have thick secondary cell walls which add to the strength of a pine needle, as you have probably tested yourself many times when you got poked with one. In this repeat picture you can see the hypodermal sclerenchyma with the thick red-stained walls, on either side of the sunken stomate.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Bundle Sheaths</span><br />
<b>Bundle sheaths</b> are different in C3 plants and C4 plants.<br />
Here, in a C3 grass (<i>Poa</i>), you see their regular bundle sheaths:<br />
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Closer. Just looks like a blank set of cells surrounding the vascular bundle.<br />
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But in a C4 plant, like this <i>Zea</i> corn, the sheaths have what is referred to as "<b>Kranz anatomy</b>". Kranz is German for wreath, and you can see they are rather leaf-like in the following examples. There are two orientation pictures, then it zooms in one a single bundle sheath so you can see the Kranz anatomy.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Leaf Abscission Zone</span><br />
When a plant loses its leaves, it prepares for this by creating an <b>abscission zone </b>so the leaf can easily fall off without damaging any of the other tissue. Layers of cells secrete suberin (or is it subirin?) for protection (and are called suberized cells), while the next outermost layer of cells is pre-programmed to break easily, as it were. The weak layer is called the separation layer.<br />
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Whew, that's a lot of leaf anatomy! Stay curious.<br />
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P.S. There are no picture source references cause I took all these with my camera (through the microscope in Botany lab) and did the labeling myself.Juliehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11053993488327960337noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-39593178205257858382014-09-09T21:32:00.001-06:002014-09-09T21:32:14.815-06:00Plant Cell Wall Lab<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">In this lab we explored various anatomical features of plant cell walls.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><u>Mitosis & Cytokinesis</u></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Not going to repost that, I did this last year and it is still beautiful: <a href="http://biogeonerd.blogspot.com/2012/09/mitosis.html" target="_blank">Mitosis post</a></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Here's another great pic of a cell plate and phragmoplast on the edges I got today though: </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Cytokinesis in plants is a rather involved process since a new middle lamella must be made, followed by primary wall and sometimes secondary wall.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><u>Primary pit fields</u></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">This is a TERRIBLE picture taken of a picture shown to me on another camera. But you can kind of see the primary wall and the thinner parts that indicate the primary pit fields (pointer is on the thicker part of the primary cell wall).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9G1ItXv5YG7G4B2b3m3HdR9x-q0nhxf3oOHMZh58T12vOZ42uWucGXZPKe69hH-qDSzfmVkrg8KxyWDM3F9GV5R4dmoKbYUtPv4C9Zkyw5jX1woCqPR7Yaz3Yx_Dwn7pIPOFPOJmCGJs/s1600/onion+primary+cell+wall.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9G1ItXv5YG7G4B2b3m3HdR9x-q0nhxf3oOHMZh58T12vOZ42uWucGXZPKe69hH-qDSzfmVkrg8KxyWDM3F9GV5R4dmoKbYUtPv4C9Zkyw5jX1woCqPR7Yaz3Yx_Dwn7pIPOFPOJmCGJs/s1600/onion+primary+cell+wall.jpg" height="240" width="320" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">More primary pit fields from a more 3D outside view of the cell (this is from #6 of the lab).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The cell walls are stained pink and you can see that there are lighter/ white spots on it. That's where the wall is thinner, so those are the primary pit fields.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><u>Plasmodesmata</u></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">By definition, plasmodesmata are only in primary cell walls, and they are channels between adjacent cells, through which the cytoplasm of each cell is continuous. These occur more often in primary pit fields where the membrane is thinner, but they can happen anywhere in the primary wall.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">You can also see these in the tomato cells we looked at last week:</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9lyvPZgJC8A4MlzV4WcviFLasSPE663uYXhyi0OiO07zRNjK0UmXpRib9ann1X0ylKwUXaYAGjRheBUg3WyR0Xh6ELT_rmCCfM0LSbT2PDtfyMfiGqsq_kzUFl7j12FRvhj0syD1WDhs/s1600/tomato+2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9lyvPZgJC8A4MlzV4WcviFLasSPE663uYXhyi0OiO07zRNjK0UmXpRib9ann1X0ylKwUXaYAGjRheBUg3WyR0Xh6ELT_rmCCfM0LSbT2PDtfyMfiGqsq_kzUFl7j12FRvhj0syD1WDhs/s1600/tomato+2.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
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<u><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Intercellular Air Spaces</span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">These get formed often at the edges of cells as they are dividing, and are important to gas exchange for the plant. (#6)</span><br />
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<u><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Secondary Cell Wall</span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Here you can see the distinction between the secondary wall and the compound middle lamella (which includes middle lamella and 2 adjacent primary walls).</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqK3xFRsnmSebCLIs6uiLeXTzwxPFY_3TS_8ELrluzDZUE30snANhOy6G0_QcBlalXq7JUET-z-s2xg8c2RVVMhD4TMm9ghTTF-nAr_07kUImU3xn64U9d-EPzbSxzf4LpY7AAodJS1j8/s1600/xylem+phloem+bundle+cap.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqK3xFRsnmSebCLIs6uiLeXTzwxPFY_3TS_8ELrluzDZUE30snANhOy6G0_QcBlalXq7JUET-z-s2xg8c2RVVMhD4TMm9ghTTF-nAr_07kUImU3xn64U9d-EPzbSxzf4LpY7AAodJS1j8/s1600/xylem+phloem+bundle+cap.jpg" height="400" width="300" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Just a picture to orient- vascular bundle, and the bundle cap at the top.</span></td></tr>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibCJPRHUpdksf6v0Y0b5yS-dVMBuY_D1u9Fnml4sjNUnmsl-zHG4R_VttIcA3EP83CRK3a1PFVsBqjaOW07W_LbDm-AD6zmQUCjgV7sNuk8NTpUPux8IuXQSOsu9ZsKXTKfAPaYwgYNGY/s1600/secondary+wall+compound+middle+lamella.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibCJPRHUpdksf6v0Y0b5yS-dVMBuY_D1u9Fnml4sjNUnmsl-zHG4R_VttIcA3EP83CRK3a1PFVsBqjaOW07W_LbDm-AD6zmQUCjgV7sNuk8NTpUPux8IuXQSOsu9ZsKXTKfAPaYwgYNGY/s1600/secondary+wall+compound+middle+lamella.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">The lighter lines between all the cells are the compound middle lamella, the darker parts are secondary cell wall.</span><br />
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<u><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Pits</span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">These are pear stone cells, and they have many long simple pits running through their secondary cell walls. I thought they look rather similar to plasmodesmata, but the distinction is plasmodesmata are ONLY in primary walls, and pits are ONLY in secondary walls. (Lab #9)</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTOnmuPpaUxvU_-7qZXjhpvHxkQ-W_goCoJXiofTtVE0bdxdgD2Ib6j-LgRpvRLFpsI5mNlAvxPe6YuJAVpSZLedzJoy_5SDJ-n2Zt7B4OK_YYLNZSUDLNH5fyXXTNq6quS0ykAbrjQnE/s1600/Pear+simple+pits.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTOnmuPpaUxvU_-7qZXjhpvHxkQ-W_goCoJXiofTtVE0bdxdgD2Ib6j-LgRpvRLFpsI5mNlAvxPe6YuJAVpSZLedzJoy_5SDJ-n2Zt7B4OK_YYLNZSUDLNH5fyXXTNq6quS0ykAbrjQnE/s1600/Pear+simple+pits.jpg" height="320" width="302" /></a></div>
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<u><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Bordered pits</span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Bordered pits from above look like little donuts. Here there are a whole bunch in some dense pine wood. These types of pits are common in water conducting cells, and they act to help prevent clogs from air bubbles. (Lab #11)</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGaWSvJXVhm898HZNgloUWJ7ZpQuDV1m4R40SrwgS8e0d8-T5I17ncUYCWdN0OmhHz505RwFfUPaTMg3N1kZI2b5O_wrMMK1i8sP-VhWwMpN-HqWy1YHJenNKVA16-riQNhzI0lUx5apE/s1600/bordered+pits.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGaWSvJXVhm898HZNgloUWJ7ZpQuDV1m4R40SrwgS8e0d8-T5I17ncUYCWdN0OmhHz505RwFfUPaTMg3N1kZI2b5O_wrMMK1i8sP-VhWwMpN-HqWy1YHJenNKVA16-riQNhzI0lUx5apE/s1600/bordered+pits.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Stained microscope slides are pretty. That is all.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Stay curious.</span>Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-33304445304794759382014-09-07T22:05:00.000-06:002014-09-07T22:05:35.997-06:00Plant Cell Wall Synthesis<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Plants have some things animals don't, including a cell wall surrounding their cells.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhe3JtHnQQcNoixd_wMxzzjS8gqO0E0jr8FsQCdZ6rkvjLli8zmDEhlfUR4UfUPJD7b1LpSr0FA89BImHYm8VnlcsKjCNytTQtgZT3yhyphenhyphenURgFvLc7BQLL5J7AcJdPzsNCSaRNftzsebszk/s1600/plant+cell.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhe3JtHnQQcNoixd_wMxzzjS8gqO0E0jr8FsQCdZ6rkvjLli8zmDEhlfUR4UfUPJD7b1LpSr0FA89BImHYm8VnlcsKjCNytTQtgZT3yhyphenhyphenURgFvLc7BQLL5J7AcJdPzsNCSaRNftzsebszk/s1600/plant+cell.jpg" height="366" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://biology-pictures.blogspot.com/2011/12/plant-cell-diagram.html" target="_blank">Source of picture</a></td></tr>
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<u><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Primary Cell Wall</span></u><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Here's a diagram of the primary cell wall, along with the middle lamella that lies between adjacent plant cells with their respective primary cell walls. Also the regular-old plasma membrane lies internally to all that.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0pf-kYWndwzQHNgWKHhXjYZcTqREFdVlFEPE8usdiezlWufSTUupCATfH78ZpaU9UlxVbJiNtwIx3LAVgcmVTtSuGEhqG0_N_JJr_FZl0rFI6eMlrdCP4zQVB5KMJsVPW8B2NMjh9xUg/s1600/plant+cell+wall+primary.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0pf-kYWndwzQHNgWKHhXjYZcTqREFdVlFEPE8usdiezlWufSTUupCATfH78ZpaU9UlxVbJiNtwIx3LAVgcmVTtSuGEhqG0_N_JJr_FZl0rFI6eMlrdCP4zQVB5KMJsVPW8B2NMjh9xUg/s1600/plant+cell+wall+primary.jpg" height="241" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://dorim.mokpo.ac.kr/~jjkim/Lecture/Cellbiol/Note/ch21/tissue21.htm" target="_blank">Link to source</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">The middle lamella is made of pectins which are the perfect sticky thing to attach a primary wall made of cellulose microfibrils to! The primary wall also has some other stuff to hold it together in a nice meshy business.</span><br />
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<u><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Synthesis of Primary Cell Well</span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">This is the coolest part...</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">When a cell splits and becomes two cells, a new cell wall must be built between them. I'll go into the details of the cytokinesis itself in another post, but after that is done, all that is there is is a middle lamella (again, made of pectins), and a plasma membrane on either side. How does the primary wall end up BETWEEN the plasma mebrane and the middle lamella?!?</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Cellulose synthase, that's how. And it's brilliant. In the plasma membrane, there is a complex of proteins embedded that make cellulose. They look like little rosettes, like the ones depicted in blue, below:</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPLFD2Xo9NOCzKYIN90xiStzu0DB8zHkzO-psMxu_z6FrsVaP5Xzv1mx6v0o9YIdlYZXMIDulh21myFDD-oJZ4l3zDBq73Bt_7Brzj-CW-2F6jdY69r2YFeScaCIfd028dJftZcei-iPE/s1600/Rosettes3D500.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPLFD2Xo9NOCzKYIN90xiStzu0DB8zHkzO-psMxu_z6FrsVaP5Xzv1mx6v0o9YIdlYZXMIDulh21myFDD-oJZ4l3zDBq73Bt_7Brzj-CW-2F6jdY69r2YFeScaCIfd028dJftZcei-iPE/s1600/Rosettes3D500.jpg" height="283" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">The cellulose microfibrils get put together and come out of the external end of the rosettes (closer to the middle lamella). The long cellulose molecules that strengthen the primary wall adhere to the middle lamella, add some cross-linking stuff (pectin, glycans) and there you have it.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">The cool part is those rosettes actually move through the plasma membrane, (like wading through mud) guided by microtubules which are on the internal side of the plasma membrane, leaving the trail of cellulose as it goes.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Here are some other diagrams of how this works.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">In this one, the blue arrows indicate the direction the rosettes are "wading" through the plasma membrane, "walking" along the orange microtubules beneath. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJP387-E3Frgnge3L3vRUlXrKU5peCLEAiNTaMmCRNy7Ci7jp0eMkNw5Gd3wUSLC8mt_Nya3o9FE5yb_YaXcXI52XN2kl829HnJTj70Ore6iS5eUxhIarmoIWK9InuHDsstNdmjQWMoyE/s1600/cellulose+synthase+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJP387-E3Frgnge3L3vRUlXrKU5peCLEAiNTaMmCRNy7Ci7jp0eMkNw5Gd3wUSLC8mt_Nya3o9FE5yb_YaXcXI52XN2kl829HnJTj70Ore6iS5eUxhIarmoIWK9InuHDsstNdmjQWMoyE/s1600/cellulose+synthase+2.jpg" height="303" width="400" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">This shows how the glucose subunits come in from the cytoplasm (purple circles) and are put together into the complex polymer of cellulose. Again, the arrow shows the rosette is moving to the left, leaving a trail of cellulose to the right.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaP7Psgz5VBLzIfgRUWITx2KIThp1l-iUjbKwK5TYcbL2jMQizoyaSWUpTasMVBypEEgem-7ZMxbhIhBY11XJ7zLY41tF6RGKSlVq2HRvSQXz1LVzszSs_WzjWZnPUuVXD6m0MMW0HJN8/s1600/rosette+cellulose+synthase.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaP7Psgz5VBLzIfgRUWITx2KIThp1l-iUjbKwK5TYcbL2jMQizoyaSWUpTasMVBypEEgem-7ZMxbhIhBY11XJ7zLY41tF6RGKSlVq2HRvSQXz1LVzszSs_WzjWZnPUuVXD6m0MMW0HJN8/s1600/rosette+cellulose+synthase.jpg" height="320" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://prezi.com/g3b1fkb7b0sq/499-october-18/" target="_blank">Source of image</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">And here we see the yellow plasma membrane cut away partly so we can see the rosettes that pass through and synthesize the microfibrils of cellulose. Each section of the rosette is an enzyme in its own right that puts together the long chains from glucose, which is then wound together into larger and larger units. </span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7-HJFK02GS4dL5Py1iepfeYOAx2KmlHa9mzNrBgRYzXzba7f_VtRAxMr9co1UEcjNzYvOXkdA9agI7pFnpwKkTjOCKIWcHmXMvEnnKfocMltBD8-FitLm7o8Df6TdNQrjk28GnbdMqTE/s1600/cellulose+synthase.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7-HJFK02GS4dL5Py1iepfeYOAx2KmlHa9mzNrBgRYzXzba7f_VtRAxMr9co1UEcjNzYvOXkdA9agI7pFnpwKkTjOCKIWcHmXMvEnnKfocMltBD8-FitLm7o8Df6TdNQrjk28GnbdMqTE/s1600/cellulose+synthase.jpg" height="307" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://creationwiki.com/" target="_blank">Source of image</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Here's what the structure of cellulose looks like broken down, so you can see it's a complex, tightly packed polymer.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgQdQVnzEv1vsQwX_W0wns-_7dYsLIXcMVcxlA-IbGW4nKawTJ85H0-hDG4xNgwxas5Dxtadv32BLxNHD95Qf8Ip2qvS8eAkMJ3u-TEUVuH6E343-O3PU7RfvmkHe8Qdr_8vwOyza9QHg/s1600/CellWallMolec-Macro.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgQdQVnzEv1vsQwX_W0wns-_7dYsLIXcMVcxlA-IbGW4nKawTJ85H0-hDG4xNgwxas5Dxtadv32BLxNHD95Qf8Ip2qvS8eAkMJ3u-TEUVuH6E343-O3PU7RfvmkHe8Qdr_8vwOyza9QHg/s1600/CellWallMolec-Macro.jpg" height="400" width="396" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/" target="_blank">Source of image</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">The strands of cellulose are arranged pretty randomly in a primary cell wall. The cellulose synthases don't move very quickly, so the cellulose that is spit out goes around rather randomly, much like squeezing a bunch of toothpaste out of a tube- it goes every which way.</span><br />
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<u><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Secondary Cell Wall Synthesis</span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">The secondary cell wall is lain down internally to the primary cell wall. It is thick and has 3 layers that are put down one at a time. Each layer has all its cellulose going parallel to each other. But the layers each have different directions/ orientations than one another, as seen in the bottom part of this diagram:</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEix48bSaP9of8e7fg-OU9IS5mivph8U9ZjgeZkWxiWYPOWiI5RZS2GBI03ecRPCsPEkZIaZJDf7eDTVjbr8mtYED0FIlu86QthmqMFI3LyKnrhMAWBzMhJBmL1dB03fELrRF2QivOPSV_g/s1600/secondary+cell+wall.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEix48bSaP9of8e7fg-OU9IS5mivph8U9ZjgeZkWxiWYPOWiI5RZS2GBI03ecRPCsPEkZIaZJDf7eDTVjbr8mtYED0FIlu86QthmqMFI3LyKnrhMAWBzMhJBmL1dB03fELrRF2QivOPSV_g/s1600/secondary+cell+wall.gif" height="337" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.ccrc.uga.edu/~mao/intro/ouline.htm" target="_blank">Source of image</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">This provides a lot of extra strength, because it is protecting against compression, stretching, tension, etc. in all directions once you have all 3 layers put down. When the cellulose rosettes are laying down cellulose for a secondary cell wall layer, they move more quickly and in regular, straight lines.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">That's all she (I) wrote. Stay curious!</span>Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-41982649186788987282014-09-07T12:25:00.002-06:002014-09-07T12:25:40.866-06:00Directional Terms - Plant<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">I couldn't find a good diagram of this online, so I did what any logical person would - made my own!</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuJuUsUY9Kl4Dncv765X4dc9EuvOjNhaZr6FUUpBfty13ccVZmF14KayGNBj8ierRB-GicH2IbxZ6Ztm-XLbUHTyIzlQ1hGkzl2dZC2cqyU2Qew80_mtAw8rfKbsuVCFZHsNr-vgOUqhU/s1600/plant+directional+terms.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuJuUsUY9Kl4Dncv765X4dc9EuvOjNhaZr6FUUpBfty13ccVZmF14KayGNBj8ierRB-GicH2IbxZ6Ztm-XLbUHTyIzlQ1hGkzl2dZC2cqyU2Qew80_mtAw8rfKbsuVCFZHsNr-vgOUqhU/s1600/plant+directional+terms.JPG" height="640" width="504" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><u>Basal</u>- closer to the base of the organ (note the "base" of the root system is next to the soil line)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><u>Apical</u>- closer to the apex of the organ (the "apex" of the root system is the bottom-most/ inferior-most part)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><u>Proximal</u> - closer to the base of/ attachment point of a lateral organ like a leaf. For a leaf, this term is the same as basal.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><u>Distal</u> - farther from the base of/ attachment point of a lateral organ like a leaf. For a leaf, this term is the same as apical.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><u>Adaxial</u>- this is closer to the axis of the organ ("adding" to the axis). Axis is the very center of a cylindrical organ like a stem.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><u>ABaxial</u>- farther from the axis of the organ (similar to aBduction of a limb at the joint in human anatomy- taking it away from)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><u>Periclinal</u>- along the perimeter/ outer edge of an organ. They follow the perimeter.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><u>Anticlinal</u>- anti to the perimeter (at a right angle to the outer edge, like the scar in the drawn cross section)</span>Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-10691348086189016552014-09-04T23:48:00.000-06:002014-09-04T23:48:11.995-06:00Directional Terms - human<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Here is a handy reference on directional terms used for human anatomy. I was nice enough to choose the pictures of people with clothes on. You're welcome.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmckZDp5FCn_OyCPgQMVfgTqr0RvvM3WXVI90XcW8gPbCZn9CTYRHQ-WVdwUJnk3LmJvOIiv0FDYJ711xqhMtlyzrbQ0GB_udj_0SK6rBRYmwVEU8Qgb3B0jChcoqkKjrst1RtC0Ejk-U/s1600/Directional+planes+human.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmckZDp5FCn_OyCPgQMVfgTqr0RvvM3WXVI90XcW8gPbCZn9CTYRHQ-WVdwUJnk3LmJvOIiv0FDYJ711xqhMtlyzrbQ0GB_udj_0SK6rBRYmwVEU8Qgb3B0jChcoqkKjrst1RtC0Ejk-U/s1600/Directional+planes+human.jpg" height="377" width="400" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjgsNcK2edS7J8EqwF1wkKkP1v9iFOdp3BGg1e9dkuYNeIR8IPnAr7-H8JYWTneDJKBFhzxb4q4j3zqLCAbZ5STxUd8g485eTmBc1FMDaUWFa4z9U8TKzdIdyR8GGhhnB8D5iTYp8yMDuw/s1600/directional-terms.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjgsNcK2edS7J8EqwF1wkKkP1v9iFOdp3BGg1e9dkuYNeIR8IPnAr7-H8JYWTneDJKBFhzxb4q4j3zqLCAbZ5STxUd8g485eTmBc1FMDaUWFa4z9U8TKzdIdyR8GGhhnB8D5iTYp8yMDuw/s1600/directional-terms.jpg" height="305" width="400" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Here are some specific to the brain, because for humans our brain as we are standing is tilted compared to the way we hold up our heads, like so:</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgebb89sNbj7YTS54hdxx6UHfA1-BvkjK2vWL4Zf9dSA9QA1rflp2ufIBH1WtqD9wY_DDo4f5oMORbHLE46LA3tmBWYtfxJYQTOdyqAC6ArdqiCiX6h3-UVrw1qYEvC2L8oMwtlUa43jmg/s1600/brain+tilt+head.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgebb89sNbj7YTS54hdxx6UHfA1-BvkjK2vWL4Zf9dSA9QA1rflp2ufIBH1WtqD9wY_DDo4f5oMORbHLE46LA3tmBWYtfxJYQTOdyqAC6ArdqiCiX6h3-UVrw1qYEvC2L8oMwtlUa43jmg/s1600/brain+tilt+head.png" height="300" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/neuroanatomy/deck/7426237" target="_blank">Source on Studyblue</a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">So simply using superior/inferior and anterior/posterior doesn't quite work for how we normally think of orienting the brain, which is why we use dorsal/ventral and rostral/caudal.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1g6igTVv8YaXLoVjNzSIcDqWGbnf6vLqQbLLVrA95YhcOYKHbj3CZNGA5mfU5pr6sM4aSJGxbihL_cJQO-2KQF-QojQ_uCUxYlHj0Fjk0ssCXA7SmM_ngshlIVPrDEOy-OCZEyCp80Wo/s1600/directional+human+brain+terminology2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1g6igTVv8YaXLoVjNzSIcDqWGbnf6vLqQbLLVrA95YhcOYKHbj3CZNGA5mfU5pr6sM4aSJGxbihL_cJQO-2KQF-QojQ_uCUxYlHj0Fjk0ssCXA7SmM_ngshlIVPrDEOy-OCZEyCp80Wo/s1600/directional+human+brain+terminology2.jpg" height="221" width="400" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Here is a memory aid for this. I had a hard time keeping dorsal/ventral straight, so this is what helped me.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">When I think of <b>dorsal</b>, a shark comes to mind with its iconic dorsal fin on its <b>back</b> or in this case <b>top</b>:</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjI4PzLvR3E6eSqk6Lj0LDuEWXGJu1zgI4u1TfvMp11QBz9yRmIH04dCq-YnnS4G78DxyoznrpgNlBXMwDd1dcFgSiWiMqPE2adc4mf4_ZMhOlyXme64v0YZGy_u7CKhEYssQ36TW_obVQ/s1600/White_shark_(cropped).jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjI4PzLvR3E6eSqk6Lj0LDuEWXGJu1zgI4u1TfvMp11QBz9yRmIH04dCq-YnnS4G78DxyoznrpgNlBXMwDd1dcFgSiWiMqPE2adc4mf4_ZMhOlyXme64v0YZGy_u7CKhEYssQ36TW_obVQ/s1600/White_shark_(cropped).jpg" height="186" width="320" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">For <b>ventral </b>being the bottom or down, I had to think about stingrays. They take water in on the top of their bodies and then shoot the water out the <b>bottom</b> over their gills. So they <b>vent</b> the water out the <b>bottom </b>side of their body. Hope that helps.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_WgoEks1RnBzue8rADM2E9VdvIFwgxSvmxa4MqyCFdm6hrKssuxJotljz6xaa-RUXhFezwo6OQWXwhbSv-f_wktN9Br9omNdHXZI_cGjtNzq9RoZcw6pMs9bRYRS8ppPsk5qpA5ATglQ/s1600/stingray.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_WgoEks1RnBzue8rADM2E9VdvIFwgxSvmxa4MqyCFdm6hrKssuxJotljz6xaa-RUXhFezwo6OQWXwhbSv-f_wktN9Br9omNdHXZI_cGjtNzq9RoZcw6pMs9bRYRS8ppPsk5qpA5ATglQ/s1600/stingray.JPG" height="268" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Left image: top/ dorsal side of stingray. Right image: bottom / ventral side of stingray</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">There ya go, have fun in anatomy or whatever class brought you to find this blog!</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Stay curious.</span>Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-17146874028193634882014-09-04T23:16:00.000-06:002014-09-06T08:52:26.516-06:00Blood Brain Barrier<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">No one would argue blood is very important to our bodies! It carries very important things to all parts of the body we need such as glucose and oxygen. It also takes out the trash by removing wastes like lactic acid and carbon dioxide.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Blood is the highway by which our immune system cells gets around our body to take care of anything that invades. Blood is also how medications, drugs, poison and toxins, hormones, etc. can get around our bodies.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">But let's talk about blood and the brain. Our brain is a very special organ that deserves special protection. It's the only part of our body that is protected by a 7 mm thick covering of bone, in addition to cerebrospinal fluid cushioning and protective layers of meninges. That protects from the outside in, but we also have protection from the inside out, called the blood-brain barrier (I will abbreviate it BBB).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Blood supply is very important to the brain so it has a constant supply of energy and waste removal. Here are some diagrams showing the blood vessels supplying the brain.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimmqnxjpFM1zON1qaRyHZ66INX3SVysT6oGYiTveBau_HkwKHn6c5lgMeTU-D6O6hHY4oQrUAPt1Ki-vT3Rpw_bk95tVRzfvwNcztsZvewG0FsTgxYorSU7lRMwq33i1EVRrNKGcZ1jeU/s1600/blood+flow+brain+side+view.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimmqnxjpFM1zON1qaRyHZ66INX3SVysT6oGYiTveBau_HkwKHn6c5lgMeTU-D6O6hHY4oQrUAPt1Ki-vT3Rpw_bk95tVRzfvwNcztsZvewG0FsTgxYorSU7lRMwq33i1EVRrNKGcZ1jeU/s1600/blood+flow+brain+side+view.jpg" height="400" width="278" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Notice the arch at the bottom of this diagram is the aorta which comes right off the heart itself</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8Ahsg7YhF1WOAA_-vsBWJsk0eGZzTcm_gJA7NBhhHdqFZrGWea6aw4M0YkWeapgFDOKV6c8YKEY8ETsyY5NhtVltRdOuPYbTg1MacxbU97pYN0lb5rISY7OBTKT0v9527OPRLBJvgyMY/s1600/Blood-flow-to-the-brain.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglNdjsrTx0Gajyv_OJcHwxiE0h7lWVt9nKmMvXlG15PIouOWkroxRJF37wopGyby_rfubiwbNSTy-QFzWw9Tlr6fTZOcMU92p0bk7058uUbPwX3kG2L0u_5GGbi4Nru8BZz-jLH5oyjKg/s1600/bood-supply-brain.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglNdjsrTx0Gajyv_OJcHwxiE0h7lWVt9nKmMvXlG15PIouOWkroxRJF37wopGyby_rfubiwbNSTy-QFzWw9Tlr6fTZOcMU92p0bk7058uUbPwX3kG2L0u_5GGbi4Nru8BZz-jLH5oyjKg/s1600/bood-supply-brain.jpg" height="260" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">The Common carotid artery is the one you are feeling when you take your pulse on your neck</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This "Circle of Willis" shows the blood supply on the inferior/ ventral side of the brain.<span style="font-size: small;"> </span><span style="font-size: small;">You can see in the image on the right where this is in relation to the brain.</span> </span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiA6h7QjbII1sYIs9P5GyGQzD7gsVGf1xh4D56yeOd-KFOU_ZhQMqhlplWLA-OPVPeDepLTKKSLlO6kEhDhTI8LFkpitiTciZZjZXj6yiwfGluHlj_Deb9Pw2pC0ZRovFcnImQObvJLKHk/s1600/circle-of-willis.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiA6h7QjbII1sYIs9P5GyGQzD7gsVGf1xh4D56yeOd-KFOU_ZhQMqhlplWLA-OPVPeDepLTKKSLlO6kEhDhTI8LFkpitiTciZZjZXj6yiwfGluHlj_Deb9Pw2pC0ZRovFcnImQObvJLKHk/s1600/circle-of-willis.jpg" height="287" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Alright, so we need that blood and it definitely is there. But how to protect it? Some may think the "Blood-brain Barrier" is some kind of a gate the blood goes through when it enters the vicinity of the brain, but that isn't the case. There isn't a particular spot for the BBB, but rather, it exists as protection on the capillaries (smallest blood vessels where material exchanges happen) themselves in EVERY location within the area of the brain. It's not a matter of filtering all the blood as it travels through your head, but it's a matter of being more selective about what things cross over FROM that blood into the brain tissue. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">We have special gate-keepers to protect things from getting into our brains. Here's a cross-section of what a blood vessel in the brain looks like compared to a regular one elsewhere in the body:</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRaP413_BgVwzm0F7JPx35hkDPw8pKTMtnrkoUgkeErWbAYnZG1u3TSf_DOQ3CshsxPlF6kijpK25OMnGedpKoOu14nfE4e88LsAjmUU0aHXuXwAX5R8StcUczlRR7s6Biubc3BZhvF30/s1600/blood+brain+barrier+astrocytes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRaP413_BgVwzm0F7JPx35hkDPw8pKTMtnrkoUgkeErWbAYnZG1u3TSf_DOQ3CshsxPlF6kijpK25OMnGedpKoOu14nfE4e88LsAjmUU0aHXuXwAX5R8StcUczlRR7s6Biubc3BZhvF30/s1600/blood+brain+barrier+astrocytes.jpg" height="476" width="640" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Not only are the capillary cells (red in the diagram) closed more tightly so things can't leak through, but the entire blood vessel is covered with the "feet" of astrocytes. (My favorite glia! Here's a <a href="http://biogeonerd.blogspot.com/2014/01/astrocytes.html" target="_blank">post about them</a>.)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Here's a more 3D view:</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgybfDUgNWyroYTcGE5ivFn90AAJJUcjnXjRT4wKvBylYWgkghpB1OQ6dYSzhv95FC4Ouq6ocZyIj_YFUaH4nyyM956g19qw1eBuPrlOduQ4dZT1yZXMm5YhEfsy0TEovNlfGZO9xU70Uo/s1600/astrocytes+blood+neuron.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgybfDUgNWyroYTcGE5ivFn90AAJJUcjnXjRT4wKvBylYWgkghpB1OQ6dYSzhv95FC4Ouq6ocZyIj_YFUaH4nyyM956g19qw1eBuPrlOduQ4dZT1yZXMm5YhEfsy0TEovNlfGZO9xU70Uo/s1600/astrocytes+blood+neuron.jpg" height="265" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">See how is it a gatekeeper? Anything in the blood must go through the astrocyte in order to get to the neuron. Astrocytes are like the bouncer, protective big brother, or best friend: "if you want to get to the neuron, you have to [quite literally] go through me first!"</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Astrocytes are really integral to the chemical integrity in the brain and are a bit of the "unsung heroes" of the brain. Not only are they gatekeepers, but they act as a kind of mop-up crew and storage unit for any leftovers the neurons leave around (like ions, some neurotransmitters), and they serve to make sure the neuron stays well-fueled, like a mother who keeps snacks in her purse for her toddler. No wonder astrocytes far outnumber neurons in the brain.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">How do these tight blood vessels and "feet" of the astrocytes actually protect it? They are cells, which means they are surrounded by membrane- a phospholipid bilayer, which looks like this up close:</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4MemKWomm0aUcJjULXqbQMrKYmsWQR7t1SHKeFByKAIuG6HQbUosLT4jOx7vIrv8G0y9gGsZqM8ZRW0HJKEzaloNeewAyxOZ7lTZbkAn4GkdzisnJSbOa7Etd7CQ6i1JtjDCON4hjmkU/s1600/phospholipid+bilayer.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4MemKWomm0aUcJjULXqbQMrKYmsWQR7t1SHKeFByKAIuG6HQbUosLT4jOx7vIrv8G0y9gGsZqM8ZRW0HJKEzaloNeewAyxOZ7lTZbkAn4GkdzisnJSbOa7Etd7CQ6i1JtjDCON4hjmkU/s1600/phospholipid+bilayer.jpg" height="305" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Because of this configuration, stuff that is polar (charged) or water-soluble can't get through the membrane- it can't get past all those hydrophobic fatty tails. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">YOU SHALL NOT PASS!!!</span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Water-soluble stuff such as nutrients (Amino Acids, Glucose, vitamins)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Polar stuff</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Chemicals & toxins</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Viruses</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Bacteria</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIwauPjc0nDRJoiIM7JGFgZcD6tBySnmDo0zCzx_QWdYfZqj_VoFjCnMS0qFyPc6iipl8i_eEFeVjyQ9EUre1oJCLIjDAii_5XLoUg_s2JFlB2u8t00MALck9uKlO9XJ3FL94K4eCWsx4/s1600/shall+not+pass+if+no+study+gandalf.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIwauPjc0nDRJoiIM7JGFgZcD6tBySnmDo0zCzx_QWdYfZqj_VoFjCnMS0qFyPc6iipl8i_eEFeVjyQ9EUre1oJCLIjDAii_5XLoUg_s2JFlB2u8t00MALck9uKlO9XJ3FL94K4eCWsx4/s1600/shall+not+pass+if+no+study+gandalf.jpg" height="253" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: large;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Stopping viruses and bacteria for the win. Stopping nutrients? FAIL.</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So to fix that, we have special transporters to let the good stuff in. They can be super specific, so a glucose transporter will ONLY let glucose in.</span><br />
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<u><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Okay, you can go in...</span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Non-polar/ uncharged/ fat soluble stuff: this includes oxygen going in and carbon dioxide going out </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Drugs that are fat-soluble</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Other important stuff with special transporters embedded into the membrane to let them in, like water, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, etc. (Glucose has a wicked-awesome backstage pass, AND it knows the lead singer of the band.)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Whew! That's a big job and an important one for the BBB.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Stay curious!</span>Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-43245923046953221292014-09-04T22:00:00.000-06:002014-09-04T22:00:28.852-06:00Brain Development<br />
It astounds me how much brain development takes place in a fetus before a
woman even usually knows she is pregnant. This is an important reason
why many foods are fortified with folic acid. Folic acid (or folate) is
essential in early brain development to the point that in its absence,
there can be severe defects (such as spina bifida), but by the time the woman discovers she is
pregnant, damage is already done, because it affects the neural tube which has already developed by day 21 of pregnancy!<br />
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Quote from the <a href="http://www.riversideonline.com/health_reference/Healthy-Baby/DS00417.cfm?RenderForPrint=1" target="_blank">Mayo Clinic</a>: <br />
"Spina bifida is part of a group of birth defects called neural tube
defects. The neural tube is the embryonic structure that eventually
develops into the baby's brain and spinal cord and the tissues that
enclose them.
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"Normally, the neural tube forms early in the pregnancy and closes by the
28th day after conception. In babies with spina bifida, a portion of
the neural tube fails to develop or close properly, causing defects in
the spinal cord and in the bones of the backbone."
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhCJgPGM__N3NpjVG0znEsWkc3BXnYQ02rqIIDWv8BpCP6dbEDvS4NH9FpPK4zfKPyKJZ2vGZS6NiubIzilAnCR7cyoGLEF6x5GbKpDeHCWV_kw6Us2kZ8UFL5Ele6k-wbr7XXUKRXceM/s1600/neural+tube+spina+bifida.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhCJgPGM__N3NpjVG0znEsWkc3BXnYQ02rqIIDWv8BpCP6dbEDvS4NH9FpPK4zfKPyKJZ2vGZS6NiubIzilAnCR7cyoGLEF6x5GbKpDeHCWV_kw6Us2kZ8UFL5Ele6k-wbr7XXUKRXceM/s1600/neural+tube+spina+bifida.jpg" height="319" width="320" /></a></div>
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The Spina Bifida example serves to show how quickly brain development takes off. This video has an excellent animation of brain development in a human fetus.<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/mMDPP-Wy3sI" width="420"></iframe>
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A couple other visualizations of the neural plate becoming the neural groove and then neural tube:<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEip2OOXvDLHcymZOx2rAqQKtXZnG5NOlzRCEwFvDKKXotPcuAzeSdS4ZdY5Qexi9Y6EFjaWFtRmg8DBgrfZs_Sd6SYhKa5pIApxlJupNd9XFKKiOVZnxSBs4yQw3DmcgVhGyndqEzxLIYU/s1600/Neural_crest.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEip2OOXvDLHcymZOx2rAqQKtXZnG5NOlzRCEwFvDKKXotPcuAzeSdS4ZdY5Qexi9Y6EFjaWFtRmg8DBgrfZs_Sd6SYhKa5pIApxlJupNd9XFKKiOVZnxSBs4yQw3DmcgVhGyndqEzxLIYU/s1600/Neural_crest.svg.png" height="400" width="332" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUlGMvhVmLmxqs3ej91uV74AsPhtJiymXOlcbhQLYHYGkCwyzpPMVVgHPq225ILkCPTQWmLZq4VKfSj8r2qg9F2GAa1E3HUYjdtUkXTFZgjrdPsI1T6nMVhGki7Cdf_qslrg66IM9Z-_U/s1600/neural+groove+neural+tube.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUlGMvhVmLmxqs3ej91uV74AsPhtJiymXOlcbhQLYHYGkCwyzpPMVVgHPq225ILkCPTQWmLZq4VKfSj8r2qg9F2GAa1E3HUYjdtUkXTFZgjrdPsI1T6nMVhGki7Cdf_qslrg66IM9Z-_U/s1600/neural+groove+neural+tube.jpg" height="181" width="400" /></a></div>
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Lastly, here's a nice TED talk to get you thinking about infants in a different light. thanks for sharing Claudia Lieberwirth.<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="360" mozallowfullscreen="" scrolling="no" src="https://embed-ssl.ted.com/talks/alison_gopnik_what_do_babies_think.html" webkitallowfullscreen="" width="640"></iframe>
<br />Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-54170423465333684292014-09-02T21:17:00.001-06:002014-09-02T21:17:57.025-06:00Plant Cell Structure (Plant Bio Lab 2)We got to examine some basic structures of plant cells for out Botany (Plant Biology) lab this week.<br />
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1) This is a thin section of a cork, showing dead cells with nothing but cell walls. These are what Robert Hooke first saw and named "cells" in 1665.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRR_YJzesn-VVO53vxgnAWBVy5F8DLg-w7OD1UlNuCfHRUtxm0chr1ZyStI1n01GiBR785sd45_NMHzpZV1GAKYkJTvsjDfzaVMUrRG8HS04604qujyhQQmVn-yewjP5fbGca4R9MsJOI/s1600/cork.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRR_YJzesn-VVO53vxgnAWBVy5F8DLg-w7OD1UlNuCfHRUtxm0chr1ZyStI1n01GiBR785sd45_NMHzpZV1GAKYkJTvsjDfzaVMUrRG8HS04604qujyhQQmVn-yewjP5fbGca4R9MsJOI/s1600/cork.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFb1KphlNeZtq3jTznFPELV-tqWO32j0pxeP-kw9OClUYymWw_3DlzKZ7zlgALFVQKeW2ws-tKquEEM7wQmuLS7Dz5uBKdi11Hrt9UsJvcQgaHhLILhZsTz1FGiufqS783D3_nfh6WrjY/s1600/cork+close.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFb1KphlNeZtq3jTznFPELV-tqWO32j0pxeP-kw9OClUYymWw_3DlzKZ7zlgALFVQKeW2ws-tKquEEM7wQmuLS7Dz5uBKdi11Hrt9UsJvcQgaHhLILhZsTz1FGiufqS783D3_nfh6WrjY/s1600/cork+close.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcdT1vTmjcH98boVzLD7cPe0xemb4OVfGkQQcbqDadViHeQAK7RxV2zgIg3niEhXNoQKQo97QetUhmm5tsAR7jEcdJEu79bHrffMcEYSouC_QXbntWBJYDKuUhLbspiHatdL6WzdgAdbI/s1600/onion+aBaxial+unstained.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a>2) Onion. First the abaxial (inner) side of onion, unstained, then stained.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcdT1vTmjcH98boVzLD7cPe0xemb4OVfGkQQcbqDadViHeQAK7RxV2zgIg3niEhXNoQKQo97QetUhmm5tsAR7jEcdJEu79bHrffMcEYSouC_QXbntWBJYDKuUhLbspiHatdL6WzdgAdbI/s1600/onion+aBaxial+unstained.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcdT1vTmjcH98boVzLD7cPe0xemb4OVfGkQQcbqDadViHeQAK7RxV2zgIg3niEhXNoQKQo97QetUhmm5tsAR7jEcdJEu79bHrffMcEYSouC_QXbntWBJYDKuUhLbspiHatdL6WzdgAdbI/s1600/onion+aBaxial+unstained.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
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Adaxial side of the onion is much better, first the unstained, then stained:<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjfT4w9WkGeL4DOa8WpZId5SFReS-GqIEoLvc_5m87amFZjSNrPx6AhEKTQYNQO9gYF0tO8q557s3EGRiJG9CsxUfBrdrA6xFelTr4n-RLcUcKrhPn1rLn3evekq3pAlW-sQKW14y1XxU/s1600/onion+adaxial+unstained+2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSOfzjrxwVvSxzE2_YeAlgVnq-3uWH58JIWpH7dj0c9jwhHakmlz5xJ0Q_aHZ5hmwVaDVUwBlD2PHPCavpKdk8zSqQvV80cyl1ipYK7Msz3WZuidTjMFL0tIkplGYQsVfjTbA8fiHHOfk/s1600/onion+adaxial+unstained.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSOfzjrxwVvSxzE2_YeAlgVnq-3uWH58JIWpH7dj0c9jwhHakmlz5xJ0Q_aHZ5hmwVaDVUwBlD2PHPCavpKdk8zSqQvV80cyl1ipYK7Msz3WZuidTjMFL0tIkplGYQsVfjTbA8fiHHOfk/s1600/onion+adaxial+unstained.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfBb9E6hQoTRtt1Q3qRKom4Pny5OZWCSw6PSIDexuFM1r12FCrYHgf7Qb3oYryWL2ygcuF6BXxG2V2ZoWQF93ekhnGTokefaAjfB738fgHpClzYpVJQFIHLZN2l1cgnd3k-G6tm3XpIKk/s1600/onion+adaxial+stained.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfBb9E6hQoTRtt1Q3qRKom4Pny5OZWCSw6PSIDexuFM1r12FCrYHgf7Qb3oYryWL2ygcuF6BXxG2V2ZoWQF93ekhnGTokefaAjfB738fgHpClzYpVJQFIHLZN2l1cgnd3k-G6tm3XpIKk/s1600/onion+adaxial+stained.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
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3) Onion root tip stained for mitochondria:<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzIsWVFm0di_yjlVtV8jBouH7vf4FT1KVKXfV3C8WrwM9NKcIEn2GCRdqI3MrfcPLlEib2zowkwjCP3EearLTT1wkyHutAAPCXrrb2EKrxoT4OFIUk6laMVhueOinkLvq-yvqkehMPydE/s1600/onion+root+tip+mitochondria.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzIsWVFm0di_yjlVtV8jBouH7vf4FT1KVKXfV3C8WrwM9NKcIEn2GCRdqI3MrfcPLlEib2zowkwjCP3EearLTT1wkyHutAAPCXrrb2EKrxoT4OFIUk6laMVhueOinkLvq-yvqkehMPydE/s1600/onion+root+tip+mitochondria.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">The brown outlines are stained cell walls, the large dark dots are nuclei and the small dark speckles are mitochondria</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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4) Onion root tip showing mitosis. I have a good past post of this already you can <a href="http://biogeonerd.blogspot.com/2012/09/mitosis.html" target="_blank">view here</a>. <br />
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5) Colleus stem cs. Notice pith and cortex, thin primary cell walls, large vacuoles, and intercellular air spaces. This is not a great picture, sorry to my classmates on that one.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgI8lIv0vP_hyTjBDDAlpFHOfj1n8mp32j7jGKLVOEgMtC0g2vE-U1y-DKeHnbN4lsme2NU2voMMU1GbXPaGNsk-aB-ut1yJKybd7vpsZwoZVL_CplwgQDbninBzMOiFWPyxzY44FzzH9M/s1600/coleus+cs+pith.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgI8lIv0vP_hyTjBDDAlpFHOfj1n8mp32j7jGKLVOEgMtC0g2vE-U1y-DKeHnbN4lsme2NU2voMMU1GbXPaGNsk-aB-ut1yJKybd7vpsZwoZVL_CplwgQDbninBzMOiFWPyxzY44FzzH9M/s1600/coleus+cs+pith.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
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6) Zamia blepharoplast<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiZLMugS7uh-NLvGz0e6xys5sINZXpoXqcd28AdDOueWt1gPoYah-Y-ysxaFHNfUI0zk6qwm3jEd3TIAqI0oW7XAJhIROqy-7pI8z8J1lspJ7k2qxlojChUBPGgEcfp0zJIOtI4h_33-U/s1600/Zamia+ovule+2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiZLMugS7uh-NLvGz0e6xys5sINZXpoXqcd28AdDOueWt1gPoYah-Y-ysxaFHNfUI0zk6qwm3jEd3TIAqI0oW7XAJhIROqy-7pI8z8J1lspJ7k2qxlojChUBPGgEcfp0zJIOtI4h_33-U/s1600/Zamia+ovule+2.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Here's an orientation of the entire Zamia ovule. The part labeled 5 is where we will zoom in.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXqb4BXkknzf3Td8kRFY7Bl3LHCYV08eeD_DTH2-s66a-SEDKF3XMcF6qXlMmiBQZOUK7iZgL-wcL0k2HVR_UtiYISsUZEz52mEnj3X-9UDXc8ln1Zp2XzdZEfIF7lnN5omd5D1qEUG8k/s1600/zamia+pollen+tube+markings.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXqb4BXkknzf3Td8kRFY7Bl3LHCYV08eeD_DTH2-s66a-SEDKF3XMcF6qXlMmiBQZOUK7iZgL-wcL0k2HVR_UtiYISsUZEz52mEnj3X-9UDXc8ln1Zp2XzdZEfIF7lnN5omd5D1qEUG8k/s1600/zamia+pollen+tube+markings.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Now we can begin to see the blepharoplast (circled) which is at the end of the pollen tube (yellow arrow)</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0nuSN1XNWZ69K_UaJwmW3zB1oa8aow1GgrZgq8H5sWd1U2ZhaZl2qV-zp3pLJF7fvNtHhqO7IHeRx0ELKYMOiHMX4e1oTcKZSgSWzCjb4fQi_DpfwCgg3hPqa6q3_Lman69ezWNYy61g/s1600/zamia+blepharoplast+close.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0nuSN1XNWZ69K_UaJwmW3zB1oa8aow1GgrZgq8H5sWd1U2ZhaZl2qV-zp3pLJF7fvNtHhqO7IHeRx0ELKYMOiHMX4e1oTcKZSgSWzCjb4fQi_DpfwCgg3hPqa6q3_Lman69ezWNYy61g/s1600/zamia+blepharoplast+close.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Zoomed in on the blepharoplast</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
7) Elodea / water weed. First a normal view, then after adding salt so we can see the plasmolized cells to see the cytoplasm better.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUU_3rUbGBSS5LjoyttnIyCnJvT9XJGLOVYIgGvOI_moenwCNkBCbJgQBtWAj2S4qFXTQ8EW0PXx3E8UskXj3jb0-mvZTj-cFZpyG0Wabn5WQczpQhZKwm6JIcOcKBru_66RgfSGR7tzQ/s1600/water+leaf+before.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUU_3rUbGBSS5LjoyttnIyCnJvT9XJGLOVYIgGvOI_moenwCNkBCbJgQBtWAj2S4qFXTQ8EW0PXx3E8UskXj3jb0-mvZTj-cFZpyG0Wabn5WQczpQhZKwm6JIcOcKBru_66RgfSGR7tzQ/s1600/water+leaf+before.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Normal Elodea cells. Can see concentrations of chloroplasts (green specs) congregating around the edges of each cell</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIbDmDl0oY7fJA0-9xnYWJPnxyf10sl9VNY7bAcgcxI86Qr0ftfYlIfUb0l7ib3r6qndnLq4093V3SPlcf7WNGVsCUagHs2bOZygKOIeAoIzfAkmpkdhCM8YIe1-YoT8z7JJrj6tYoO7Q/s1600/water+leaf+after+cell+wall.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIbDmDl0oY7fJA0-9xnYWJPnxyf10sl9VNY7bAcgcxI86Qr0ftfYlIfUb0l7ib3r6qndnLq4093V3SPlcf7WNGVsCUagHs2bOZygKOIeAoIzfAkmpkdhCM8YIe1-YoT8z7JJrj6tYoO7Q/s1600/water+leaf+after+cell+wall.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Now much of the vacuole volue is lost and more of the cytoplasm is visible, as well as the chloroplasts more evenly distributed</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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8) Potato, amyloplasts can be seen on the post about <a href="http://biogeonerd.blogspot.com/2013/09/plastids.html" target="_blank">plastids</a>.<br />
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9) Carrot & Tomato are seen really well in the post about plastids (chromoplasts), and here are a couple other goodies:<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmlSKC3UvdSK_zn4yS4KLxFCo8DjgJ_bvwY0CdY8GFT25CWRvhK9IaEYNt4Uml8vf7RorEoYs63E1Fu1UOkuVE6AobW6AokwXeVM3bAe6AT2wMLkEG1iNUREFqnd-hkPBhz3mlB9BGNNk/s1600/carrot+chromoplasts.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmlSKC3UvdSK_zn4yS4KLxFCo8DjgJ_bvwY0CdY8GFT25CWRvhK9IaEYNt4Uml8vf7RorEoYs63E1Fu1UOkuVE6AobW6AokwXeVM3bAe6AT2wMLkEG1iNUREFqnd-hkPBhz3mlB9BGNNk/s1600/carrot+chromoplasts.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Carrot- the little orange speckles are the chromoplasts.</span></td></tr>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7hq3vH9jQzwbmHfnQGOisiYQGBALH-aRrQLHzBvCxOINZtA3LJgYZnz858X9N6bnqkBkmcjnFb8sNQTpH26WUZSDVsCuPmSH4-14s0_y-mCm-rTHegGlQld5akWF7_u_kHvh_y8WnwKI/s1600/tomato+2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7hq3vH9jQzwbmHfnQGOisiYQGBALH-aRrQLHzBvCxOINZtA3LJgYZnz858X9N6bnqkBkmcjnFb8sNQTpH26WUZSDVsCuPmSH4-14s0_y-mCm-rTHegGlQld5akWF7_u_kHvh_y8WnwKI/s1600/tomato+2.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Tomato - this shows a really good view of the cell walls (I am guessing thick secondary cell walls with lots of plasmodesmata? Don't quote me on that yet.)</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9Ah2CdjnORjdscAHt-Wl14NXvuXAVx5Xf_p_qYybFJyYl2Y_JWRk1cOSTlzHUa-Zkdp2CftOqYYPG5D9eIB_JnLaB7Rlwpi3hrXBVKbyTos8ezoAyRO5rBbDzJPCn-8MsPwTioSNFlL4/s1600/tomato+with+epidermis.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9Ah2CdjnORjdscAHt-Wl14NXvuXAVx5Xf_p_qYybFJyYl2Y_JWRk1cOSTlzHUa-Zkdp2CftOqYYPG5D9eIB_JnLaB7Rlwpi3hrXBVKbyTos8ezoAyRO5rBbDzJPCn-8MsPwTioSNFlL4/s1600/tomato+with+epidermis.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Tomato - GREAT view on the right of the tomato flesh with red speckles (chromoplasts). The mass of orange cells on the left is the skin (epidermis).</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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10) Beet - notice the pigment is in the vacuole rather than chromoplasts, so it is much more obvious.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvB2pkYq1L9_fw43_sKN0j3ecoyH7FNMi7T7HDekt9Tw4uh0z75ayDm2XXJJp2GBqxpJWL3vXUm0AWW0O1yvO32WgTJ4o6PIMUwRQxF_oE6a5f25HiiNTAiNXB7vThb1j0WhHZUge6fN4/s1600/beet.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvB2pkYq1L9_fw43_sKN0j3ecoyH7FNMi7T7HDekt9Tw4uh0z75ayDm2XXJJp2GBqxpJWL3vXUm0AWW0O1yvO32WgTJ4o6PIMUwRQxF_oE6a5f25HiiNTAiNXB7vThb1j0WhHZUge6fN4/s1600/beet.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Here is the beet, the pigment is rather obvious</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjM-M7gHfJFkA6HI6dwzOZJgbYHgN6wZTQBAl2CpUQqLDYBR77R0e2ewz-bXMXcIbw5nuzrmOM1MAn-Jqay0_tqtRxBUxd63A2HhThZtxi_s2rfGx0VOM7gVU5WPTzCYjfOXAT8qmskqM/s1600/beet+after+salt.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjM-M7gHfJFkA6HI6dwzOZJgbYHgN6wZTQBAl2CpUQqLDYBR77R0e2ewz-bXMXcIbw5nuzrmOM1MAn-Jqay0_tqtRxBUxd63A2HhThZtxi_s2rfGx0VOM7gVU5WPTzCYjfOXAT8qmskqM/s1600/beet+after+salt.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Now that salt has been added, you can see the pigmented vacuoles have shrunk quite a bit</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOKageLbXazU3_VdXN4rL0Pj0TYMKPdhVTgwWgA6IPoBvAGLanmRBKw-tZ3MDk0yzzoXTuu-kHlvuuhSsqy922or0Bgm8Lm1IN_SbOoIImvzKFycD7rmYDLEA5LWisYWw0KO0At3hmX8o/s1600/beet+after+sugar+cell+free+vacuoles.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOKageLbXazU3_VdXN4rL0Pj0TYMKPdhVTgwWgA6IPoBvAGLanmRBKw-tZ3MDk0yzzoXTuu-kHlvuuhSsqy922or0Bgm8Lm1IN_SbOoIImvzKFycD7rmYDLEA5LWisYWw0KO0At3hmX8o/s1600/beet+after+sugar+cell+free+vacuoles.JPG" height="300" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">The little pink circles are pigment-filled vacuoles floating around all by themselves (after we added sugar and mashed the beat to a pulp)</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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The end!<br />
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Stay curious,<br />
<br />
Julie<br />
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<br />Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-47250847528089746752014-08-26T22:46:00.000-06:002014-11-23T09:30:22.543-07:00Neuron CommunicationI have blogged quite a bit about Action Potentials which are the way in which a nervous impulse travels down an individual cell. (For your reference: <a href="http://biogeonerd.blogspot.com/2012/02/action-potentials-what-make-your-brain.html" target="_blank">Action Potentials</a> and <a href="http://biogeonerd.blogspot.com/2013/02/action-potentials-up-close.html" target="_blank">Action Potentials Up Close</a>).<br />
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Here I will summarize what it takes for a message to be passed from one neuron to another. If you are interested in information about the specific channels that make neuron communication possible, see <a href="http://biogeonerd.blogspot.com/2012/10/neurons.html" target="_blank">this post on Neurons</a>.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0nJ8pxDYK05094GNg6_xbZAQWZHyCLSfTRy-vaHkNo8WopkxArgooYzzv2VwyV3_-UJzwADKLehyGCIWcwqvErwqxah0IdAIinAkmzfS51xXbSmg7AQkFcnHvd8hy1YKdMXvIfEabLauu/s1600/MultipolarNeuron.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0nJ8pxDYK05094GNg6_xbZAQWZHyCLSfTRy-vaHkNo8WopkxArgooYzzv2VwyV3_-UJzwADKLehyGCIWcwqvErwqxah0IdAIinAkmzfS51xXbSmg7AQkFcnHvd8hy1YKdMXvIfEabLauu/s1600/MultipolarNeuron.png" height="257" width="400" /></a></div>
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When an action potential - the electrical signals that neurons use to send messages - reaches the end of an axon, the <b>electrical</b> message must become a <b>chemical</b> message in order to cross the synapse. Neurons are connected to each other by a synapse which consists of the axon of the presynaptic neuron (the one sending the message), and the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron (the one receiving the message), and the space between them called the synaptic cleft. Chemicals have to be sent across this space for the message to continue on. The chemicals used are neurotransmitters.<br />
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Here's a simple diagram of a synapse: <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjncGH4O-sAgNxMwGrcbihGH5yqCCaoRWSyiF4CGyxp1SIQs8Lk424oxhpMOa1-WPmVQfLyXgkcQuez9PjuvMgrw7pIcb0PI43KXty5lHOhshw1Kr3AYur0VbJyZpyMWTrpSOW3HN56sxw/s1600/synapse+neurotransmitter+vesicles+simple.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjncGH4O-sAgNxMwGrcbihGH5yqCCaoRWSyiF4CGyxp1SIQs8Lk424oxhpMOa1-WPmVQfLyXgkcQuez9PjuvMgrw7pIcb0PI43KXty5lHOhshw1Kr3AYur0VbJyZpyMWTrpSOW3HN56sxw/s1600/synapse+neurotransmitter+vesicles+simple.jpg" height="222" width="400" /></a></div>
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For a little more information and overview of neuron communication, here is a more detailed diagram:<br />
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When the electrical signal reaches the end of the axon, a special thing happens with Calcium entering the cell which allows those vesicles full of Neurotransmitter chemicals to exocytose. That's a fancy word meaning the vesicle smooshes into the cell membrane, kicking its contents outside the cell- into the synapse. Those neurotransmitters are then free to act on the postsynaptic cell dendrites or body to continue the message along!<br />
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But how did those vesicles of neurotransmitter actually GET there? The cell factories that make neurotransmitters which are mostly made of protein, are waaaaaay back at the cell body, but it has to be released at the terminal button of the axon! Axons can be very long, like so:<br />
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Neurotransmitter vesicles are continually made by the neuron (each neuron only makes one particular type of neurotransmitter), and sent down the axon. They get there the same way you would travel a long distance- on a "highway" of sorts.<br />
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Here is a great animation of the whole neuron communication process, and you will see vesicles coming down to the end of the axon.<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/90cj4NX87Yk?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe>
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So, the cool thing is those vesicles are literally "walked" down the microtubule highway. In my favorite video, you can see this happen: <br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/B_zD3NxSsD8" width="420"></iframe>
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Lastly, I found this funny little video about the life of a motor protein (the alien-looking guy that walked the vesicle down the microtubule). Enjoy!<br />
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P.S. While searching for images, I ran across this amazing blog, so here is a great reference on the brain and neuroscience, explained in simple terms in much the same way I try to do my own blog. <a href="http://thebraingeek.blogspot.com/">The Brain Geek</a><br />
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Stay curious!<br />
-Julie Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-27872527502998234542014-08-26T22:23:00.000-06:002014-08-26T22:23:57.369-06:00Plant Biology Lab 1Today we simply went over microscope procedures and practice making wet mounts of various plant parts.<br />
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Here are several pictures of a flower petal. The big circles of pink are just cells whose giant vacuoles are full of pigment. The 3 pictures are all of the same view and I just found it interesting that they look SO different, just with slight adjustments of the microscope or even the angle or temperament of my camera shooting through the eye piece.<br />
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This is a side view of a leaf. On the left (under side I believe) is were stomata would be. The circular thing in the middle of the picture that I *thought* was a stomate is actually a vascular bundle!<br />
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Again, different settings can change the coloring completely.<br />
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Here is water leaf, and we got some bonus little brown flecks, which our professor said are likely diatoms that were in the water with the plant. <br />
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The large purple splotches are large diatoms! The details inside the cells here is beautiful. <br />
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Dr. Robbins also showed us this neat video of chloroplasts doing "cyclosis". Here's the explanation of what that is on the description of this video on YouTube:<br />
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Rapid cycling of cytoplasm - cyclosis is seen here as circling of
chloroplasts in cells of Elodea canadensis. Chloroplasts normally move
in the cell to adapt to changing light conditions; here they are exposed
to much too strong light (under the microscope) and they want to move
away from it, but in the end they just circle round and round.<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/PFtzs_cUddI" width="420"></iframe>
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So there we go, a simple introduction to our botany lab. More exciting stuff will come in the weeks to follow. :)Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-26861474058092207232014-05-24T18:28:00.002-06:002014-05-24T18:30:35.932-06:00Solar Roadways<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A married couple from Idaho is about to change the world drastically, for the better.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Julie & Scott Brusaw from Sagle Idaho wanted to do something about Climate Change, and wondered if their crazy idea of making roads out of solar panels could actually work. Well, after some funding for Research & Development from the Federal Highway Administration, they proved it can and does. Learn about it with this video:</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/qlTA3rnpgzU" width="560"></iframe></span>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This makes me so geeking happy, you have no idea. And I'm just a little proud that these folks are from a neighboring state, and the husband is a mechanical engineer. I'm excited that hopefully these will be a reality by the time my little boys are driving. I am REALLY hoping with the public's backing, this won't be killed by Big Oil and the politicians they have so much control over. Here's to still having hope in America!</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Solar Roadways is raising money to go into PRODUCTION until May 31, 2014. Please visit their Indiegogo page to make a donation and get some cool swag along the way.</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1pT2LBliSyQfk_7WlOUrohwRy_afDxBo2962u91mtVnOy7l4Cmw9nLcweqeKECSSuJfOR_ct7lD-Fafue9UwnitXkD8IJoKA8Ho3D6-k2enZkkUDRimr_OactF9EDN6rNgPpl07c7ZJM/s1600/Solar+Roadways+bumper+sticker+driving+on+sunshine.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1pT2LBliSyQfk_7WlOUrohwRy_afDxBo2962u91mtVnOy7l4Cmw9nLcweqeKECSSuJfOR_ct7lD-Fafue9UwnitXkD8IJoKA8Ho3D6-k2enZkkUDRimr_OactF9EDN6rNgPpl07c7ZJM/s1600/Solar+Roadways+bumper+sticker+driving+on+sunshine.jpg" height="131" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">That ^ is my fave of their bumper stickers you can get for a $25 donation (mine is on its way). You can get even cooler stuff for bigger donations if you can afford that. (If you can't afford to donate, help spread the word instead!)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />Click on the logo to go to their funding campaign:</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/solar-roadways" target="_blank"><img alt="https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/solar-roadways" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijDl1oh8HdN1zKmp1zh-xaX8q7eRzabQjBxGk4wVVcow0Wg8hlQ7aPoE-Nz1FZFanjtbneAECkG0-xuEjdCh4DrFPGr04gJsN1DK3WGUl5wfBN6rycUhVR2DseJ6F16_4HIr8dArO7vuo/s1600/indiegogo.jpg" height="126" width="320" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">And here is their website where you can get more updates on what's going on with them currently:</span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.solarroadways.com/intro.shtml" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="http://www.solarroadways.com/intro.shtml" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjN6WTjkHvlHCCqHI5Jpnv3_E1fHvdbOIQ0qzyQ4VSJKfFDySTvPSemIzCHbt74xBkpwvHQTJ-ZvHi2Ufa8u0pwVOHpTV9UVwcBtC6S_FOte1yuY11VlDzMHohjmH6ZO0QRZnKOLvXR0ts/s1600/solar+roadways+logo.png" height="216" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">SolarRoadways.com</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />And/or like their <a href="https://www.facebook.com/solarroadways?ref=profile" target="_blank">Facebook Page</a> for updates!</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Thanks, spread the Solar Love: save the planet, the economy, our health, and our wallets.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(Info for this post was from SolarRoadways.com and www.indiegogo.com/projects/solar-roadways)</span> </span>Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-21660392872628425612014-04-28T21:26:00.003-06:002014-04-29T07:36:31.624-06:00Natural Selection - Types<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Biology loves to have terms for everything. Sometimes multiple terms for the same thing. So naturally, I got a little confused with the different types of selection I learned in Evolution. I finally got it all straightened out, and since I couldn't find a good source with this info in once place when I was searching, I'm making one! Hope it helps someone in the future. (If it does help, I'd love to hear about it in the comments!)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><u><span style="font-size: large;">Selection in Microevolution</span></u> </span></div>
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Natural Selection in microevolution has 3 main types. (FYI, Microevolution is change over time within populations.) Here's a great overview visual I found:</span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh14PtilVDyuFGjMkgt5x8y7zBHV2aD7CCcycJ764S7zHSAUCrYtzZOpOFmnrlM_T21L_cwzSjiLXM_YVrFO87XNYnwEN_ix92SdLfMXAC9hyDzHpBsWJ4UKA_JxZ_2d-fbKSWRgNqeE_8/s1600/Selection+Types+3+main+quantitative+polymorphic+locus.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh14PtilVDyuFGjMkgt5x8y7zBHV2aD7CCcycJ764S7zHSAUCrYtzZOpOFmnrlM_T21L_cwzSjiLXM_YVrFO87XNYnwEN_ix92SdLfMXAC9hyDzHpBsWJ4UKA_JxZ_2d-fbKSWRgNqeE_8/s1600/Selection+Types+3+main+quantitative+polymorphic+locus.gif" height="290" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.d.umn.edu/~jetterso/2011Lecture19-Chapter12-formsofselection.htm" target="_blank">Source</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">And here is a closer look at each.</span> <br />
<u><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Directional Selection</span></span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Direction</span>al selection can cause (eventually) loss of alleles, because more advantageous alleles are being selected for. In these graphs, you can think of the heterozygotes (Aa) as being in the middle of the curve, and both types of homozygotes (AA / aa) on either end. So if you are losing an allele, you're essentially losing the homozygotes on one side, AND losing the heterozygotes. The allele that gets selected for can eventually become the only option. This is known as "fixing" that allele. So your distribution shifts in one particular direction, like so:</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3BAxYAFXS2Mok7cnrHTg91ix9srQAsgnmggPTLPbAtcCUHu5KBGkdAArMHbO4dRBCTA3h6429o8YYJc7bGkliiFzL-IvrE18JUlH4vxsowPjmLfqESAKs2vH4fKcuDZh_s8RjVjvR91w/s1600/directional+selection.GIF" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3BAxYAFXS2Mok7cnrHTg91ix9srQAsgnmggPTLPbAtcCUHu5KBGkdAArMHbO4dRBCTA3h6429o8YYJc7bGkliiFzL-IvrE18JUlH4vxsowPjmLfqESAKs2vH4fKcuDZh_s8RjVjvR91w/s1600/directional+selection.GIF" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><a href="http://bio.research.ucsc.edu/~barrylab/classes/animal_behavior/SELECT.HTM" target="_blank">Diagram Source</a></span></td></tr>
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<u><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Stabilizing/ Balancing Selection</span></span></u><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Instead of heterozygosity decreasing as it does in directional selection, with stabilizing selection it increases. The curve becomes taller as there are fewer homozygotes (aa/ AA) on the ends, and more heterozygotes (Aa) in the middle. This maintains diversity because both alleles are still in the population.</span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTET57r0i1cOyUGu3WjpUiwoIc25m32Z2kwtc4OYuSFvYoTbrooWguZmUg8N2iITx1AWW8GKwPLBIhu1ugdt2N1R9ajSMI0NfBtQIhZdIR97UkOJcCU1I_T5sYZG4iBu2mhyphenhyphenYcXAu6su0/s1600/stabilizing+selection.GIF" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTET57r0i1cOyUGu3WjpUiwoIc25m32Z2kwtc4OYuSFvYoTbrooWguZmUg8N2iITx1AWW8GKwPLBIhu1ugdt2N1R9ajSMI0NfBtQIhZdIR97UkOJcCU1I_T5sYZG4iBu2mhyphenhyphenYcXAu6su0/s1600/stabilizing+selection.GIF" height="320" width="247" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><a href="http://bio.research.ucsc.edu/~barrylab/classes/animal_behavior/SELECT.HTM" target="_blank">Diagram Source</a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><u>Heterozygote
advantage</u> is a term used in this kind of situation. Selection is
acting to increase the number of heterozygotes, so for some reason this
genotype has advantages to survival and reproduction. An example would
be in Africa with sickle cell anemia. If you are homozygous for
the disease, your red blood cells can't function and it is very detrimental. But
if you don't have any of the disease you're more susceptible to malaria.
Heterozygotes win in this case because they aren't as affected by malaria since they have some sickle cells, but they can also function well with the good red blood cells they have from the one dominant allele.</span></span> <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZZX_RFqFnGUTGgt63JuNUjvoVnE8sdCws-vJLWrBximdPtEcjUcXlyWXpCWx8JYR5ZKDEXDAmGDxwUO_9mdAoWD7ijNwfw3EjtakrW1bEMW45OOXmENO1mJXHvR66uTPtVkYVACX7GxA/s1600/sickle-cell-520x450.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZZX_RFqFnGUTGgt63JuNUjvoVnE8sdCws-vJLWrBximdPtEcjUcXlyWXpCWx8JYR5ZKDEXDAmGDxwUO_9mdAoWD7ijNwfw3EjtakrW1bEMW45OOXmENO1mJXHvR66uTPtVkYVACX7GxA/s1600/sickle-cell-520x450.jpg" height="172" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.blackaids.org/news-2012/1459-sickle-cell-disease-cuts-hiv-risk-in-us-blacks-400000-person-review" target="_blank">Source</a></td></tr>
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<u><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Diversifying/ Disruptive Selection</span></span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">This type of selection also maintains the diversity of multiple alleles, but this time, heterozygotes are selected <i>against</i>. There could be a barrier to gene flow that is causing two populations of a species to diverge in this manner. An example is peppered moths that diversified into white and black depending on the environment they lived in. You can read about and even play a simulation here: <a href="http://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/pepperedmoth.html">http://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/pepperedmoth.html</a></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: small;">Speciation is a common consequence of this type of selection.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3OOCrbgNBIg1MCsIBhCaDlwdFgZjXI3hY3lLJYrfDB4uPzeGowm4449IcASiIP5Bh8nOoAGwNjBhyphenhyphenSlbtj6S7GX2ucBrJrH5NuyVHwTOeEUxQjuuBduxfgpAlDNgC-jUdaN6fow-csoM/s1600/disruptive+selection.GIF" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3OOCrbgNBIg1MCsIBhCaDlwdFgZjXI3hY3lLJYrfDB4uPzeGowm4449IcASiIP5Bh8nOoAGwNjBhyphenhyphenSlbtj6S7GX2ucBrJrH5NuyVHwTOeEUxQjuuBduxfgpAlDNgC-jUdaN6fow-csoM/s1600/disruptive+selection.GIF" height="320" width="216" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><a href="http://bio.research.ucsc.edu/%7Ebarrylab/classes/animal_behavior/SELECT.HTM" target="_blank">Diagram Source</a></span></td></tr>
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<u><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Negative Frequency-Dependent Selection</span></span></u><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">This is a matter of "the more of you there are, the crappier job you do". Too many cooks in the kitchen. As a population size increases, their fitness will decrease. In other words, population size and fitness have an inverse relationship. </span></span><br />
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<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0MFjEFUZxP2Z1syj8Enf9K4gbeDH0AGPXP1XhfcesLv1tB4euFs7RqgzqDcr0J5jc2YiQ4iGTvVE_F29C4qikUql2voV0MpMX-DyrzV6xXjH7rCW40oG12DuG5qQw6MJ-fEk24epumcA/s1600/300px-Negative_Frequencie_Dependant_Selection.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0MFjEFUZxP2Z1syj8Enf9K4gbeDH0AGPXP1XhfcesLv1tB4euFs7RqgzqDcr0J5jc2YiQ4iGTvVE_F29C4qikUql2voV0MpMX-DyrzV6xXjH7rCW40oG12DuG5qQw6MJ-fEk24epumcA/s1600/300px-Negative_Frequencie_Dependant_Selection.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host%E2%80%93parasite_coevolution" target="_blank">Source</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><u>Batesian Mimicry</u> is a great example of this type of selection. Batesian mimics are cheaters. They are not poisonous/ toxic themselves, but because they converge on a similar warning coloration pattern, predators avoid them too. They get to benefit from the toxicity of the other species they're copying. But, if their population gets too large, predators start to catch on that the mimics aren't truth-tellers. The mimics then fall victim to more predation which brings the population size back down.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqPxommcK1IHlLttZcSh70r3Z-rnfl9JZMTYrV_IM017GJZvFi1xznZfA9YvZpyRLzs5EyBaPGdDS92fxGONXYY71YieiqBYl3jluozwEtY8H3rdKPy8D34xO-2qQORa0K6hBv_WKtXpI/s1600/coral-snake+king+snake+batesian+mimicry.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqPxommcK1IHlLttZcSh70r3Z-rnfl9JZMTYrV_IM017GJZvFi1xznZfA9YvZpyRLzs5EyBaPGdDS92fxGONXYY71YieiqBYl3jluozwEtY8H3rdKPy8D34xO-2qQORa0K6hBv_WKtXpI/s1600/coral-snake+king+snake+batesian+mimicry.jpg" height="192" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Scarlet King Snake (mimic) and Eastern Coral Snake (poisonous) <a href="http://fieldguidetonature.wordpress.com/2012/10/18/888/" target="_blank">Source</a></td></tr>
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<u><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Positive Frequency-Dependent Selection</span></span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">As one goes up the other does as well. I couldn't find a graph of this but it's the same as a positive correlational relationship. (As one increases, so does the other.) If the x- axis is one species, the y-axis would be another.</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9ihp4AxxPZPp5l5VeqGTuNCZq5JB0vVhOitTwaaJutxcy0oE8ghL-dDSO5Og7a12ThCPRR5jI-uEaHBhWWNmpoPqyaAr0gm9woSKZKkyuJg6LBFPlP6xCzbdjja-D9r-s3pO3aDPQGUg/s1600/Positive+Correlation+Graph.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9ihp4AxxPZPp5l5VeqGTuNCZq5JB0vVhOitTwaaJutxcy0oE8ghL-dDSO5Og7a12ThCPRR5jI-uEaHBhWWNmpoPqyaAr0gm9woSKZKkyuJg6LBFPlP6xCzbdjja-D9r-s3pO3aDPQGUg/s1600/Positive+Correlation+Graph.gif" height="309" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">A good example of Positive Frequency-Dependent Selection is mullerian mimicry. These are the"truth telling" species in which they are both venomous/ toxic. In the example below, the 3 frogs on the top row are all from the same species. But they have had very different coloration phenotypes selected for. They have each converged on a pattern that is strikingly similar to other frog species that live in their same area and are also toxic. Each of these sympatric species are pictured on the second row. (Click "source" link below for the species' names and more info.)</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWUGQeVLuZU8obbcERLzP3UM1I2dpPsNKoZyvoSNKR50CENd6mG_q9gDFm9qJh_UPIjBcNeJaXXRd9j0LTI7qvORFI-vC1WSWUvHbw9GSO_zJJuBVkiZYG0R5CISDvs0yw6djG6DIcpHI/s1600/mullerian+mimicry+frogs.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWUGQeVLuZU8obbcERLzP3UM1I2dpPsNKoZyvoSNKR50CENd6mG_q9gDFm9qJh_UPIjBcNeJaXXRd9j0LTI7qvORFI-vC1WSWUvHbw9GSO_zJJuBVkiZYG0R5CISDvs0yw6djG6DIcpHI/s1600/mullerian+mimicry+frogs.jpg" height="207" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Mullerian Frogs - <a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/taxome/jim/Mim2/dendrobates.html" target="_blank">Source</a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><u><span style="font-size: large;">Selection in Molecular Evolution </span></u></span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Neutral Evolution</span></span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Neutral Evolution is just the absence of Natural Selection at the molecular level. It is the "null hypothesis" which states no selection is happening (similar to the Hard-Weinberg Equillibrium which is a null hypothesis for no selection at the population genetics level).</span><br />
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<u><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Positive Selection</span></span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Increase frequency of adaptive traits. In other words, this is a term to differentiate active selection from neutral evolution. This violates the Neutral Evolution "null hypothesis".</span><br />
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<u><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Negative / Purifying / Background Selection</span></span></u><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">(This term or category has given me some confusion. Many sources have listed them all as being synonymous, but I'm not so sure. So this is my best understanding to this point and I am waiting for confirmation from an Evolution expert. Just FYI.) </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><u>Negative Selection</u> is getting rid of deleterious alleles- actively selecting against them and weeding them out. I believe it's a more general term like Positive Selection is. But it can also be used to refer to Purifying/ Background</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><u>Purifying Selection</u> and <u>Background Selection</u> are synonymous. It is specific to molecular evolution. It is the process in which there is a gene locus that is highly conserved- it's been around a long time and will stick around a long time. Basically I think of it as something that works really well and is crucial to the organism. If it gets tampered with it will break and not be able to even get passed on to another generation. So any of these little tweaks don't stick, and you end up with a highly specific and conserved bit of DNA. It "purifies" the gene by selecting against extreme values of the character (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabilizing_selection" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: x-small;">see this Wikipedia page</span></a>). It is a common type of stabilizing/ balancing selection.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"><u><span style="font-size: large;">Mechanisms of Macroevolution</span></u> </span></div>
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">FYI, in case you are wondering about Macroevolution, I decided to let you know about that as well. Selection acts on populations and genes, but with accumulation of enough of these changes, you can get Macroevolutionary changes: evolution that is above the level of a species. This is the stuff that people normally think of when they think "evolution".</span><br />
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<u><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: large;">Speciation</span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">This is when a lineage splits into two different species, or a new species is otherwise defined. When enough changes accumulate or certain barriers are in place, a group can become speciated from another, so they no longer are considered the same species. Pretty self-explanatory. </span><br />
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<u><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: large;">Adaptive Radiation</span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Adaptive Radiation is when one lineage diversifies quickly into many species. This happens as a result of a number of open niches to be filled. The niches could have been recently opened up by others going extinct (like the Dinosaurs), changes in the environment, moving to a new area and colonizing it (such as islands), or if a lineage evolves a new trait (such as flight) that gives them a great advantage or takes them into previously empty niches.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">I'll be very unimaginative and point out the class example of Galapagos Finches. It's always a great example. :)</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5S2Jmq7uJIv6L_1JifxuGehLzcXYYu9ggBgdre0IjC7_o8fS7_pGOLvHCx6Hw7bWomqq0zJjW-G-COEiIOf-dYjWVo7m6muwGkbmVS-b7rbRkJRvikie3RIFWLH8XRvhXYzjZZWkcGQM/s1600/adaptive+radiation+darwin+finches+galapagos.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5S2Jmq7uJIv6L_1JifxuGehLzcXYYu9ggBgdre0IjC7_o8fS7_pGOLvHCx6Hw7bWomqq0zJjW-G-COEiIOf-dYjWVo7m6muwGkbmVS-b7rbRkJRvikie3RIFWLH8XRvhXYzjZZWkcGQM/s1600/adaptive+radiation+darwin+finches+galapagos.jpg" height="338" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Galapagos Finches, example of Adaptive Radiation due to colonization</span> <a href="http://bird-log.blogspot.com/2009_12_01_archive.html" target="_blank">Source</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Coevolution</span></u></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Coevolution is when two species drive the evolution of one another. A perfect example is host/ parasite. They are constantly having to try to "outwit" each other evolutionarily. Other great examples are a flowering plant and their pollinator, mimic species, predator and prey.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjaCvX_ujgb-a9ec6uq-d-7DNEOFXSxTbmmDYkDpv0mIME5diAtF_C1uGAG-hYzav3sttrdgGjUL1jIWZsYdA9uYvj4GJYM6BUSK3dO61ZMLs8dg0zgnY47MCjZdSxCYnyDEYsuLwQ1E4/s1600/coevolution+hummingbird+flower.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjaCvX_ujgb-a9ec6uq-d-7DNEOFXSxTbmmDYkDpv0mIME5diAtF_C1uGAG-hYzav3sttrdgGjUL1jIWZsYdA9uYvj4GJYM6BUSK3dO61ZMLs8dg0zgnY47MCjZdSxCYnyDEYsuLwQ1E4/s1600/coevolution+hummingbird+flower.jpg" height="211" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Biology-Concepts/r17/section/5.23/" target="_blank">Source</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;"></span><u><span style="font-size: large;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Convergent Evolution</span></span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">When more than one species converges onto the same characteristics even though the characteristic didn't evolve from a common ancestor, this is convergent evolution. The body forms of sharks and dolphins are one example. It's often a product of similar adaptations to similar environments, as in these examples of mammals on different continents.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://cvablog.com/creationetevolution/files/2010/03/Convergent_Evolution_Mammals21.jpg" target="_blank">Source</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Hope you learned something about evolution and selection! Please leave a comment! Thanks. :)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Stay curious,</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Julie</span>Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-69102408680207266322014-04-26T08:38:00.001-06:002014-04-26T08:45:44.468-06:00SleepI am a big fan of sleep. Whenever my brain needs a good reset, 9 hours of snoozing always does the trick. This is pretty much me:
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhY6xccUnoT0vqdQ_0Q6PvUrkK-A8RQFkfFG5yJHVqkBMt7nt-TE8l66lTJIRaiDzQjpLYrV3ib3HL-Lu3mZ4PCYqYPH6FjqxoxbeZEibMlWr6R9-L-5ABjXHPWwu-yuhFs6n-1s7_61hg/s1600/sleeping+happy+baby.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhY6xccUnoT0vqdQ_0Q6PvUrkK-A8RQFkfFG5yJHVqkBMt7nt-TE8l66lTJIRaiDzQjpLYrV3ib3HL-Lu3mZ4PCYqYPH6FjqxoxbeZEibMlWr6R9-L-5ABjXHPWwu-yuhFs6n-1s7_61hg/s1600/sleeping+happy+baby.jpg" height="212" width="320" /></a></div>
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You know that marital advice that says "never go to bed angry"? Well everyone should consider ignoring that. When I get upset, the best thing for me is to sleep on it so I can think more clearly in the morning. Staying up late to try to resolve a disagreement before bed is just plain stupid, cause your power to be objective, calm, reasonable, creative (higher-order thinking skills required to solve a problem), decreases exponentially the more tired you are. Probably that advice is supposed to mean something like - delay solving the problem for now but assure your partner that you are still devoted to them by reaching out with kindness before bed. One of the best kindnesses: "I'll give you a break from discussing this problem so you can take care of your brain and I can take care of mine, and we'll revisit the issue later on with our frontal lobes in good functioning order. For now, I love you. Goodnight."
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Radio Lab has done a number of awesome podcasts on sleep, sleep deprivation, and dreams: <a href="http://www.radiolab.org/story/91528-sleep/">Radiolab Sleep Podcasts</a>
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Here's the first one "Sleep":<br />
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<iframe frameborder="0" height="54" scrolling="no" src="//www.radiolab.org/widgets/ondemand_player/#file=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radiolab.org%2Faudio%2Fxspf%2F91528%2F;containerClass=radiolab" width="474"></iframe>Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-11732023786266912252014-04-25T17:27:00.002-06:002014-04-25T17:30:58.707-06:00Nature High Summer CampThis camp is so awesome! I was a counselor last year, so I'll put up some pics and stories below, but first off, here's the promotional video they made for the camp which shows a lot of awesome footage from last summer! If you or someone you know is a High School student in Utah, you owe it to yourself to check this opportunity out!<br />
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Wondering what to do this summer in Utah? Summer camp, teens, teenagers, resume builder
During summer 2013, it was my great pleasure to work as a camp counselor for Nature High Summer Camp in Ephraim Canyon, Utah! Here's my awesome group of students:<br />
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Under Construction, sorry! I'm a busy college student, please forgive me. :)Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-18755522260700208712014-04-04T07:54:00.000-06:002014-04-05T19:51:30.718-06:00Blood Clotting<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Blood clotting or coagulation (also called hemostasis), is complex, but we want to try to understand this in "big picture" form first off.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">When an injury occurs in a blood vessel, here are the steps we go through.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgl2LpCfUw67V2MveJit_cjFjkH4ZAqN8MSwAn5nT4jZ3nc_H_KdYUn5o3JbF6N_8W_RGspfwkG8p87TS3zOvx01ksyJ9RpNnWF9EJhCMyTf_-Y5PUBmiyg4ad7gF7bw0CnIBW-XdMbi3g/s1600/clotting+simple+diagram+plug+clot.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://classes.midlandstech.com/">Classes.midlandstech.com</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Platelets and Fibrin are the important things that we actually get as products of coagulation that seal up a wound. But the activation of them is a complicated process. Which is a good thing for your body! If it were an easy reaction, we could get our blood spontaneously clotting on us and that would be BAD.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Here's another way to visualize this:</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="http://studyblue.com/">studyblue.com</a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In first forming the platelet plug, it's important to note that it's the exposed collagen fibers that are attracting platelets. The normal, healthy state of things is to NOT have platelets sticking to blood vessels. The ability to not stick is ensured by the blood vessel lining cells (endothelial) releasing prostacyclin to prevent platelet sticking. But with damage, that isn't released and instead collagen causes platelets to stick. This can be visualized here:</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPqYc6MIjo-6QCyQUG5-OgD5gGcMLZgrRhRtEdG4wHVwQGH-3x0W2bljU7jKZ2XG_X7yiNdXRnnNhlQ4256_LJV5gyNHGEdipqnWel2Imu1rstu2g5vQ__D4D9RRoIvxmiMApOv850-fQ/s1600/collagen+platelet+plug+prostacyclin.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPqYc6MIjo-6QCyQUG5-OgD5gGcMLZgrRhRtEdG4wHVwQGH-3x0W2bljU7jKZ2XG_X7yiNdXRnnNhlQ4256_LJV5gyNHGEdipqnWel2Imu1rstu2g5vQ__D4D9RRoIvxmiMApOv850-fQ/s1600/collagen+platelet+plug+prostacyclin.jpg" height="202" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="http://dc416.4shared.com/">dc416.4shared.com</a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Now for the actual clotting part after the platelet plug, for now I have some videos. If you want to cut right to the chase and a great explanation, watch the last video.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Videos</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Here's a not fabulous animation but an animation nontheless...</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This short clip I just found helpful to visualizing how the different factors work together to activate factor X then prothrombin, to activate thrombin which they refer to as the "thrombin burst" because it creates a large amount then creates a positive feedback loop to further increase the effect.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This is the best video I found! I like how concise and understandable he makes it, looking at the big picture and working backward from there. Hope it's helpful for you too.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">All clotting factors are made by the liver, except 8 and PAF3. (Platelet activating factor is made by white blood cells.)</span><br />
<br />Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-20188749374107037802014-01-02T23:29:00.000-07:002014-01-02T23:32:11.127-07:00Theodore Schwann<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Theodore Schwann (many sources also spelled his name Theodor) was a man who lived in the 1800's and is remembered as a great scientist. His actual scientific career only lasted five years! And yet, in that short time (1834-1839), he made many very important discoveries in Biology and Physiology.</span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.nndb.com/people/357/000096069/" target="_blank">Source</a></td></tr>
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<u><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Cell Theory</span></span></u><br />
<span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Shortly after German Botanist </span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Matthias Schleiden discovered that plants are made of cells, Schwann discovered that animals are as well (<a href="http://www.cpschools.com/Schools/OSM/theory.htm" target="_blank">Source</a>).</span></span></span><br />
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<u><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Alcoholic fermentation</span></span></span></u><br />
<span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">He hypothesized that fermentation wasn't a reaction with nitrogen in the air as people then believed, but that tiny organisms (yeast) were eating the sugars of the fruit and then excreting carbon dioxide and ethanol. </span></span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">People in his day noticed yeast multiplied with fermentation, but he was the first to suggest they were the thing doing the fermenting, rather than just a byproduct of it. He also stated that yeast were living plant-like organisms, firmly establishing fermentation as a biological process. </span></span></span>He was publicly ridiculed for this hypothesis which came at the end of his short career and probably helped lead to its demise, as he could no longer get funds or promotions to continue doing scientific research.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> (Paraphrased from <i>The Other Brain</i>, by R. Douglas Fields, 2009, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Schwann" target="_blank">Wikipedia- Theodore Schwann</a>.) </span></span></span><br />
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<u><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Digestion</span></span></span></u><br />
<span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">He suspected that hydrochloric acid wasn't the whole story with digestion. He discovered Pepsin, the enzyme that helps break down proteins (<i>The Other Brain).</i> He also showed that bile is essential to digestion, and coined the term "metabolism" describing chemical changes in animal tissue (<a href="http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/3541.html" target="_blank">Source</a>).</span></span></span><br />
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<u><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Schwann cells</span></span></u><br />
<span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">The myelinating cells in the Peripheral Nervous System are his namesake, since he first described them. He studied nerves, noticing they had little dew-drop like structures running the length of them. He thought that a neuron being built during development must join with other cells to create the long axon by fusion, and the Schwann cells were remnants of this process from those fetal cells. Although his speculation was incorrect, these cells still carry his name.</span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfJ1O_1ksBxnzp-4w4AEjGBqzvWj537-NXAxTukrgK03PHF9TCg2wqttHzs3Fdy40Mxff5uhdRRE7Wajh4voSxlV0fRVENwvjdGqO7R6WkekjpxfQsa3V-BKaqnhfisB77MyDp6WeROPw/s1600/schwann+cells+myelin+beads+on+string.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="223" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfJ1O_1ksBxnzp-4w4AEjGBqzvWj537-NXAxTukrgK03PHF9TCg2wqttHzs3Fdy40Mxff5uhdRRE7Wajh4voSxlV0fRVENwvjdGqO7R6WkekjpxfQsa3V-BKaqnhfisB77MyDp6WeROPw/s400/schwann+cells+myelin+beads+on+string.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">There's a brief summary of a great scientist's work. I read about him in the book I've currently got my nose in (and hoping to finish before school starts back up), <i>The Other Brain</i>, by R. Douglas Fields. It's all about Neuroglia, aka glia, glial cells. To read an overview of all the types of Glia, go to this post:<span style="font-size: medium;"> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/">http://biogeonerd.blogspot.com/2013/08/neuroglia.html<span id="goog_1732040431"></span><span id="goog_1732040428"></span></a></span></span></span></span>Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2647984086796785919.post-32851846493699764592014-01-02T18:50:00.001-07:002014-01-03T00:20:33.379-07:00AstrocytesI was so fascinated by Astrocytes when I learned about Neuroglia (<a href="http://biogeonerd.blogspot.com/2013/08/neuroglia.html" target="_blank">see my post on Neuroglia</a>), that I wanted to know more. So I wrote a paper and did a presentation on it for my Neuroscience class. Here are the fruits of those labors.<br />
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This is my Power Point presentation, which isn't really a stand-alone, it requires some explanation on most slides. Maybe some day I'll learn how to narrate something like this and post it on YouTube.<br />
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Now I'm reading <i>The Other Brain</i>, by R. Douglas Fields. It's rather fascinating. Can't wait to learn more about everything in the brain. This semester I'll be taking Physiological Psychology which should be a great way to follow up Neuroscience.Julie Nancehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12751925428400775686noreply@blogger.com0